- Major Topics
- Cave and Rock Art
- Megalithic Prehistoric Structures
- Anthropology and Archaeology
- Compilation Links
Prehistory - a tremendous set of links with just about
every topic you can think of included in Prehistory. A must visit site.
Mary Leakey:
Unearthing History
- Biography of and interview with the anthropologist whose work in
Beyond the Big Bang - Sometime between 15 and 20 billion years ago the universe came into
existence. Since the dawn of human awareness, we have grappled with the hows
and whys of this event and out of this effort have sprung many ideas. This
essay gives an intensive view of this theory of creation.Big Bang Theory Collapses takes a negative view of the big
bang theory.
Paleolithic: 40,000 - 12,000 BCE - Visual Art - The Paleolithic Era is the beginning of humanity, long before
mankind's discovery of agriculture when people were hunters and gatherers. Art
is first identified throughout Western and Central Europe beginning in the late
Paleolithic's Upper section, approximately 40,000 years ago when bone - and flint-tool
production was becoming common.
Palaeolithic Figurines :Mothers of Time - Approximately 25,000 years on from their birth date and almost 4,000
kilometres distant from their place of origin, these seven Balzi Rossi
figurines shed new light on the origins and meaning of an art that is still our
own.
Dark Caves, Bright Visions: Life in
Ice Age Europe - An
excellent site developed by the Institute for Ice Age Studies including an
intreoduction to human evolution, strategies for survival in the Ice Age,
social world in the Ice Age and a new world of ideas.Institute For Ice Age Studies On Line
Anthropology Library
The Neolithic Mosaic on the North European Plain - The introduction of agriculture and the successful establishment of
farming communities on the lowlands of north-central Europe between 5000 and
3500 B.C. (recalibrated dating) marked one of the most significant transformations
of prehistoric society in this region. The essay, with links, gives an
excellent discussion of agriculture in north-central
Neolithic: 12,000 BCE - Visual Art - In the Neolithic Era humankind discovered
agriculture andended the lifestyle of hunters-and-gatherers. Art became focused
around clay, and there are many crude figurines and dishes from this period.
Changing Neolithic Landscapes at Brzesc Kujawski, Poland - The study of the landscape is an important way to arrive at testable
propositions about the behavior of past and present societies.
Neolithic Warfare - How did prehistoric man wage war? Did he fight in organized
formations or were his conflicts merely skirmishes of the sort that occur among
some modern primitive societies? Was prehistoric man aggressive at all, or did
he live in an idyllic, peaceful environment, as some believe? Was organized
warfare the creation of civilized man, a fiendish by-product of the emergence of
civilization in the Ancient Near East? These and many other questions have
often been raised, and some authorities still regard them as open and
unresolved, yet archaeological discoveries in the twentieth century have
provided many reasonably definitive answers. This siye reviews the theories.
Flints and Stones: Real Life in Prehistory. - Welcome to the
world of the late stone age hunter gatherers. This exhibition takes you into
the lives of the inhabitants of
Archaeological Research at Oslonki, Poland - excavations by a team of Polish and American
archaeologists have revealed a large village occupied just before 4000 B.C.
with longhouses and graves. The site gives pictures of the dig and a good
explanation of the first European farmers.
Stonehenge Virtual Interactive - Take a virtual tour of present
day
The Stone Pages - The Stone Pages is a Web site
featuring megalithic sites from all over
Could you
survive today as a hunter gatherer? - The hunter-gatherers of the Stone Age did not plant their own crops,
but lived off the plants which grew around them, taking fungi, leaves and
flowers, and nuts and berries. Some are good to eat, but some are poisonous. To
survive as a hunter-gatherer you have to know which you can eat and which to
avoid.
Australian Stone Tools - basic appraisal of a collection of Aboriginal Stone artifacts
currently on loan to the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology at the
Australian National University from the Australian Museum, Sydney.
Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution in China - introduction to the study of human evolution in
Southwestern Ontario: The First 11,000 Years - follow this virtual tour.
China Ancient Graphics Resource Library - containing ancient pictographs such as cave paintings, pottery,
bronze/lacquer ware, jade, brickworks, embroidery and paper cut for application
by designers.
Australian Stone Tools - basic appraisal of a collection of Aboriginal Stone artifacts
currently on loan to the Department of Archaeology and Anthropology at the
Australian National University from the Australian Museum, Sydney.
Museum of Antiquities - The
Mysterious Places - Short descriptions and images of
Virtual Museum of the Prehistoric
Stelae-Statues of Lunigiana - The Stelae-Statues of northern
The Fossil Evidence for Human
Evolution in China - This excellent Web resource summarizes the evidence for human
evolution in
Fossil Hominids - A lengthy and well-illustrated
summary of hominid/human evolution is presented at this Web site. It carefully
discusses much of the evidence, including descriptions of the hominid species,
prominent fossils, and alternative taxonomies. It dedicates a large section to
a balanced discussion of creatonist arguments regarding paleoanthropology and
human origins.
Kinship and Social Organization: An
Interactive Tutorial - This is an online educational tutorial for teaching kinship and social
organization; stand-alone copies of the software can be purchased through the
site. The pages are easy to navigate, download quickly, and feature full-color
charts illustrating important concepts. While the tutorial is intended for use
with introductory classes, it includes several extended examples of kinship
organization, such as Biblical Hebrew descent and an extensive discussion of
Turkish peasant social organization.
Knappers Anonymous - Knappers Anonymous is a collection of notes, essays,and images
fromwide range of sources -- all concerned with the topic of flintknapping. I
hope you will find this site useful. There are features at this site which will
be of interest to anyone curious about flintknapping, regardless of background.
There are basic descriptions of flintknapping, a history of the art all the way
back to the Paleolithic, and even a "Trading Post" for expert
knappers seeking new materials to work with. The "Gallery" is an
astounding collection of images of stone tools made by knappers. This is just a
small sampling of the offerings at this stellar Web site!
Fossil Hominids- A lengwell-illustrated summary of hominid/human
evolution is presented at this Web site. It carefully discusses much of the
evidence, including descriptions of the hominid species, prominent fossils, and
alternative taxonomies. It dedicates a large section to a balanced discussion
of creatonist arguments regarding paleoanthropology and human origins.
Berkeley X-ray Fluorescence
Spectrometry Laboratory - Information for the analysis of archaeological materials are featured
at this site, including the forms needed to submit samples for EDXRF analysis.
Included is an extensive treatment of obsidian sources in the US Southwest,
including maps and descriptions of the major sources of obsidian in the region.
Technical descriptions of obsidian and the silicic volcanic history of the Southwest
are included. Links to similar Web sites are also provided.
The OCR Carbon Dating Home Page - The Oxidizable Carbon Ratio approach to carbon dating is described at
this Web site. In addition to comparisons with the popular C14 dating method, a
map showing locations where OCR was used is featured. There are also a number
of online papers illustrating cases where OCR was successfully employed.
History and Primitive Technology
Page - Information
on primitive technologies such as firemaking, flinkknapping, and buckskinning
is featured at this Web site. Currently there are articles on the firepiston,
hints for successful flintknapping, and a feature on General G. A. Custer.
Links to similar Internet resources are also available.
Ancient Mesoamerican Civilizations - Kevin Callahan's site features
extensive sections on Mesoamerican writing systems, government organizations,
and religions. All of these pages present well-researched descriptions of these
topics. Other pages discuss the Mayan calendar and astronomy, and the entire
site is supported by a bibliography and links to other Internet resources.
The Atlatl Web Site - In addition to a brief description of the prehistory and history of
the atlatl, this site also features photos of the equipment, modern atlatl
competitions, and actual hunting. A calendar of events, a list of
manufacturers, and a brief bibliography on this prehistoric weapon are also
provided.
Circassian Home Page - The Circassians are one of the oldest indigenous peoples of
Evolutionary Theory Home Page - Although this Web site is centered around the Evolutionary Theory
Mailing List, there are also several other useful features. One section
provides online papers on topics of evolutionary theory, while another provides
links to other related sites. An especially impressive feature is an online
chat room for visitors interested in sharing their thoughts on evolutionary
theory. Although it is still under development, this site promises to be a
valuable resource.
Hominid Paleo-ethology - This well-illustrated site features information on hominid
paleoethology, presented by the Hominid Paleo-ethology Unit of the University
of Barcelona, Spain. It includes descriptions of paleo-ethology and the
approaches that researchers use. It also lists the works published by members
of the unit, as well as dissertations and theses produced by associated
students.
Human Origins
Web Page - This Web site is absolutely packed with information on hominid
evolution, human origins, and human biology. Although it is dedicated to a
course at the
Excavations at Catalhuyuk - This web page provides updates
and general information on the excavations at Catalhuyuk in
Origins of Mankind: Resources
Concerning Human Evolution - This well-designed Web site provides a variety of resources on human
evolution. In the
The Paluxy Dinosaur/"Man
Track" Controversy - Did humans and dinosaurs really exist at the same time? This Web site
critically examines the "debate" that still generates interest in
certain circles. Contents focus on the Paluxy tracks, which creationists
believe support the coexistence of humans and dinosaurs. Included are several
articles, a review of several "documentaries" on the subject, and
links to related Internet resources.
Louis B. Leakey - A brief bibliography of the life
of the man who pioneered modern anthropology.
American Rock Art Research Association (ARARA) - dedicated to the support of rock
art research, conservation, and education.
Rock Art in Northeastern Spain - Rock art constitutes one of the main sources of information in order
to know the form of life, ideas, beliefs and artistic conceptions of those that
have gone before us in time. In the
The Chauvet Prehistoric Cave:
Fur-clad Michelangelos - At the foot of a cliff in the Ardèche Gorges, in south-eastern
France, amateur speleologists have discovered the world's oldest painted
prehistoric cave. And as this ornate temple to cave painting, this Palaeolithic
sanctuary, slowly divulges its secrets, it is furrowing the brows of many
prehistorians. Indeed, it would seem that, 31,000 years ago, prehistoric man
was already painting and engraving with hitherto unsuspected skill and
dexterity.
The Cosquer cave in three dimensions - Discovered in 1985 by Henri
Cosquer, a diver and speleologist in the inlets of Marseille, the Cosquer cave is
one of the oldest decorated caves in the world. A fact which should make it as
popular as the
Hunting from "The Cave of Lascaux: The
Final Photographic Record" - In ancient caves in the south of France, near Lascaux, boys in 1940
discovered 17,000 year old paintings and artifacts made by our early ancestors.
"Dating back some 17,000 years, the cave was evidently a sanctuary for the
performance of sacred rites and ceremonies.About Lascaux
andVirtual Reality Tour of Caves at
Lascaux
Michael Barry's Rock Art Page - seeking information on rock art
around the world. There are some good images of rock painting.
Petroglyphs of Fujairah (U.A.E.) - Presentation des petroglyphes du
Rock Art Foundation (RAF) - promoting the conservation and
interpretation of Native American rock art in the
Rock Art Solar Markers - SOLMAR project is in search of insights into astronomical knowledge of
ancient peoples and implications of certain iconography.
Rock Links - petroglyphs and rock art links from all over
the world, by Footsteps of Man.
Shaman's Prehistoric Rock Art Theater - photographic images from a 4 inch rock provide a documentary of the
history of humanity.
Upper Midwest Rock Art Research Association - promoting and publishing rock art studies in the upper midwest of the
Valcamonica Rock Art - prehistoric petroglyphs in
the
Megalithic
Prehistoric Structures
Southwestern Ontario: The First 11,000 Years - follow this virtual tour.
Ancient Britain - A guide to some of the sacred areas of
prehistoric
Dolmens in Denmark - Photographs of Danish megaliths.
Heathen Monuments - Legends about ancient alters, graves,
megaliths, mounds, runestones and other such monuments.
Megalith Site - This site studies standing stones, stone
circles, and megaliths, including a clickable map of locations.
Megalithic Mysteries - A photographic guide to many British stone circles, megaliths and
picturesque sites.
Megalithic Stone Circles - There's more here than just
Megalithic!
-Prehistoric ritual monuments within the
The Anthropologist in the Field - This fascinating site is a multimedia presentation of life as an
anthropologist in the field. Professor Laura Zimmer-Tamakoshi takes you through
the challenges of planning, conducting, and writing about her field experiences
in
Culture Tour: A Multimedia
Introduction to Anthropology - Originally designed as a CD-ROM for teaching anthropology, this site
features a variety of information on human culture and evolution across space
and through time. The liberal use of graphics greatly enhances the site's
presentation. The site is still under development and is still rough around the
edges, but it promises to be a very useful Internet resource for people wanting
to learn about anthropology.
Archeology Magazine &A Guide to Classical
Archeology - An
Official Publication of the Archaeological
Israel's Archaeology from the Air - This site shows the importance of
the use of aerial photography in the discovery of new digs and re-studying old
sites.
Resource Guide for Europe - ARGE is an ordered collection of hypertext links pointing to current
archaeological communication and information resources across
ABZU Index of Archaeological Sites - Index of reports on
archaeological sites in the
ArchNet - This is the premiere Web site for archaeology, and is a must for any
archaeologist exploring the Web. Links to virtually every archaeology-related
Web, gopher, or ftp site are organized into sections on Academic Departments,
Archaeological Regions, Museums and Research Facilities, Site Files and
Harvard University - Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology -
houses treasures of prehistoric and historic cultures from all over the world.
The exhibits on-line are excellent.
Museum of Anthropology - University of Kansas - The purpose of the
Simon Fraser University -
ArchWeb: WWW Server Nederlandse Archeologie - ArchWEB is a project initiated by
several Dutch archaeological organizations to provide an archaeological
information service on the Internet. The project team is trying to improve the
communication between archaeologists and with the general public and th
AnthroGlobe - AnthroGlobe's mission is to stimulate the establishment of a truly gobal
electronic system for anthropologists. To achieve this end, the Web site
features information on the use of technology in the field, including topics
such as power sources and computers. Also included is a list of related
Internet resources
Anthropology Resources on the
Internet -
Listservs, USENET groups, anonymous FTP sites, gopher and Web servers, and
literature on the Internet are all available through this comprehensive list
maintained by Allen H. Lutins. This is probably the most complete list of
Internet resources for anthropologists.
Archaeological Resource Guide for Europe - This is the Virtual Library for European archaeology. It contains a
wide variety of links organized by country, period, or subject, with the latter
containing everything from aerial photography to paleoanthropology. The
extensive lists are searchable. Other features include a notice board with
announcements of upcoming events. A first stop for anyone interested in the
prehistory or history of
Archaeology and Architecture - Featuring extensive lists of links, this Web space focuses on
architecture and European, Greek, and Roman archaeology. There is also a
section listing Web sites focused on computers and archaeology, including
computer architectural modeling and Geographic Information Systems. The Hot
News section includes brief excavation reports.
Archaeology Resources for Education - Links to Web resources relevant to teaching students about archaeology
are assembled at this site. Included is an introductory description of
archaeology, as well as links to virtual tours, descriptions and analysis of
material culture, site reports, and other categories of information. All of the
entries are annotated.
Archaeometallurgy.com - This Web site serves as a clearinghouse for information on prehistoric
and historic metallurgy. The "Projects" section provides links to
numerous relevant projects that have Internet sites. Similarly, the
"Resources" section links to Web sites such as the the Historical
Metallurgy Society and the Ancient Metallurgy Resource Group. The
"News" section includes updates on conferences, recent finds, and
more. This site is especially attractive, and it promises to be a
well-maintained resource.
Architectural
Visualisation --
Hadrianic Baths at
Classics and Mediterranean
Archaeology Home Page
- This is an important Internet resource for classicists and Mediterranean
archaeologists, for it features an enormous searchable index of over 330
related Web sites, newsgroups, FAQs, and gopher servers.
Computer Based
Reconstructions of Archaeological Sites - The potential of the Web for "bringing
the past to life" is exemplified at this site, which includes 3-D
reconstructions of the interior of the Ggantija Temple and other nearby
structures on Malta (3000 - 2500 BC). The reconstructions are worth the
download time!! There are also complete descriptions of the archaeology and the
process of modeling.
Crow Canyon Archaeological Center -
FAQ -- Career in Archaeology in the
U.S. - This is a nice hyperlinked document that summarizes information on
what it takes to do archaeology, both as a career and as an avocation. It
includes a discussion of the job market, education and training, field schools,
and choosing a graduate program. It also has recommendations for introductory
textbooks, popular books, and videos and films on archaeology.
Anthropology in the News - View the latest breaking news on anthropology! This excellent resource
provides links to news stories published on the web by a wide variety of news
organization and periodicals. Links are organized by subject: archaeology,
bioanthropology, cultural anthropology, folklore, and linguistics. Bookmark
this Web site.
Archaeological Fieldwork http:TestPit.htmlServer - This web site allows interested persons to browse through postings of
archaeological field work opportunities. Postings are organized by geographical
region. It has become a quite substantial listing, but is composed mainly of
field schools, for which one would have to pay. Still, there are occasional
postings in which a free ride or even a modest salary is included. This is an
excellent resource!
Arctic Archaeology - This most excellent web site
includes a description of the Arctic environment, with lots of photos, a
discussion of the difficulties of doing fieldwork in the
Arctic Circle - Both ethnographic and archaeological
information can be obtained from this interesting and graphically-pleasing site.
Features include information on Natural Resources, including articles on
sustainability, environmental protection, and gas development in
Classics of Out(land)ish
Anthropology - The
secrets of Bigfoot, UFOs, Creationism and other coverups are revealed at this
entertaining site! Features include the controversial NBC special, "The
Mysterious Origins of Man," as well as the Carlos Castenada home page.
This new site's revelations on popular (mis)conceptions of anthropological
inquiry promises to be both entertaining and depressing.
Dennis Holloway VR Architecture - Make sure your browser has the
Quicktime plugin when you visit this site! Architect Dennis Holloway has
created a series of stunning computer reconstructions of prehistoric Anasazi
architecture, including a whole series of structures from
Southwestern Archaeology - This site has become a major Web
stop for those seeking information on archaeology in the
Sites
with Compilations of Links on Various Topics
Anthropology and
American Indian Sites on the Internet - Anita Cohen-Williams' famous list of
anthropology Internet resources is presented at this site. Links are arranged
according to subject, such as cultural anthropology, archaeology, linguistics,
e-journals, museums, and so forth.
American Indian Studies - This comprehensive Web site
presents a wide variety of information on the Native American experience in
Ancient World
Web - This site
provides an extensive list of links related to the ancient world, including
ancient documents, classics, archaeology, architecture, philosophy, and much
more. Web sites are organized by geographic focus or subject, and there is also
a "MetaIndex" of all of the sites. The Ancient World Web also
includes a nice breaking news section summarizing recent developments related
to the ancient world.
Asian Archaeology Information Plaza - Focusing on Japanese and East Asian archaeology, this Web site provides
a list of links to related Internet resources. There are also links to East
Asian modern history and Japanese arts and culture. Some of the links are
annotated, and the site is available in both Japanese and English.
Aboriginal Links - This site has assembled an
impressive number of links to Web sites related to aborigines throughout the
world. The links are organized by geographical area and by topic, and it
includes access to features such as treaties, tribal home pages, aboriginal
arts, legislation, newsgroups, and much more.
Nicole's AnthroPage - This page contains a large number of links to a wide variety of anthropological resources arranged by topic. It is quite extensive!
Mask Links - This excellent Web site provides information on ethnographic and
contemporary masks from all over the world. As you move from continent to
continent using interactive maps, you can view images of a large number of
masks, many of which are antiques. This is a very useful resource for anyone
who collects masks or who is researching masks. This site also includes links
to other related resources on the Web, including private collections, scholars,
museums, galleries, etc.
ArchNet - This is the premiere Web site for archaeology, and is a must for any
archaeologist exploring the Web. Links to virtually every archaeology-related
Web, gopher, or ftp site are organized into sections on Academic Departments,
Archaeological Regions, Museums and Research Facilities, Site Files and
Anthropological Resources on the
World Wide Web - This consists of numerous links to anthropology-related Web sites, and
was assembled by Anita Cohen-Williams, whose name any ARCH-L member will
recognize. The links are organized by topic..
National Geographic Society - What a stellar site! The NGS Web site presents a veritable plethora of
information, from features such as Ice Treasures of the Inca, to the Research
& Exploration Grantee of the Month, to the interactive Map Machine. And
that's just a small sampling of what's available. The site is all very
polished, attractive, fast, and really quite entertaining.
BIRKS - some pretty
irrelevant information.
When I was growing up in
Birks immortalized by
Burns in a poem - THE BIRKS OF ABERFELDIE. This is a real place, as described
at the Virtual Birks.
An alarming announcement
-
REPAIR . You may think
it is time to put your old Birks out to pasture, but before you trash those
beloved old slides take a look at our repair list below. We think you will be
pleasantly surprised at how we can revive those old Birks.
... to find out more, go
to: Air Capital Birkenstock Repair
Information
There is also a
Canadian connection, with jewelry stores described on a web page at: Birks - Birks Story.
And did you
know that "the Beverley Birks Couture Collection is one of the world's
largest collections of haute couture?" see here.
There is a
Birks Lecture Series at
Meanwhile,
the
In addition to these,
there seem to be many people around the world with the same name -
One is an expert in Changing Neolithic Landscapes at Brzesc Kujawski,
Poland
Not to be outdone,
another is joint author of: An Atlas of Past and Present Pollen
Maps for Europe, 0-13,000 Years Ago.
And in Toronto, At the Red Head Gallery, Carolyn Birks is showing Exogyny,
a show of "women's accoutrements." They're made out of all manner of
wild and funky sculptural material: wire, wax, steel, fur and more.
Which may have no
connection to someone else's dissertation on the effectiveness of a
diagnostic teaching as applied to the pupils' understanding of reflection.
Close to one of my own
interests, there is a book on making pottery by Tony Birks, described here.
There is someone who
knows about Chemiluminescence and photochemical
reaction detection in chromatography, a Birks Family Foundation, a law professor,
and many, many more.
I doubt that any of
these are related, but it's amazing what you can come up with in just a short
search!
Stuart Birks
Tadeusz Kosciuszko
AKA Tadeusz Andrzej Bonawentura Kosciuszko
Born: 1746
Birthplace:
Died:
Location of death: Solothurn
Cause of death: unspecified
Gender: Male
Ethnicity: White
Sexual orientation: Straight
Occupation: Military
Level of fame: Somewhat
Executive summary: Polish and American patriot
Tadeusz Kosciuszko, Polish
soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the
palatinate of Brzesc, and Tekla Ratomska, was born in the
In the interval between
these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs in the
In the war following upon
the proclamation of the constitution of
The insurrection had from
the first a purely popular character. We find none of the great historic names
of
By this time Kosciuszko's
forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able
to resume the offensive. He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke
Kosciuszko was conveyed to
Kosciuszko was essentially
a democrat, but a democrat of the
Wife: Ludwika
Wife: Tekla Zurowska (wife or girlfriend)
Tadeusz Kosciuszko
AKA Tadeusz Andrzej Bonawentura Kosciuszko
Born: 1746
Birthplace:
Died:
Location of death: Solothurn
Cause of death: unspecified
Gender: Male
Ethnicity: White
Sexual orientation: Straight
Occupation: Military
Level of fame: Somewhat
Executive summary: Polish and American patriot
Tadeusz Kosciuszko, Polish
soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the
palatinate of Brzesc, and Tekla Ratomska, was born in the
In the interval between
these amorous episodes Kosciuszko won his spurs in the
In the war following upon
the proclamation of the constitution of
The insurrection had from
the first a purely popular character. We find none of the great historic names
of
By this time Kosciuszko's
forces had risen to 14,000, of whom 10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able
to resume the offensive. He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke
Kosciuszko was conveyed to
Kosciuszko was essentially
a democrat, but a democrat of the
Wife: Ludwika
Wife: Tekla Zurowska (wife or girlfriend)
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS 1180-1572
(The Inexorable Political Rise of the szlachta)
1180 Wiec of Leczyca (barones & clerus)
places Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy on Kraków throne; abolition of seniorate intended
to clarify succession.
In the XII century, the mozni
increase their influence in the period of fragmentation, as does the higher
clergy. "Princely Law" is reduced because of resistance to taxation;
growth of "anarchic society" based on local warlords.
1291 Lutomysl. The Bohemian king, Vaclav, recognises
distinct divisions into classes: mozni, mieszczanstwo, kler. Period of
immense rise of power of the burghers (mid-XIII century to the reign of
Wladyslaw Lokietek).
Under Lokietek, a distinct
shift in power to his "sponsors", the rycerstwo, who support
him against the combined resistance of mozni/mieszczanstwo/kler. In
return, Lokietek grants personal privilegia to many individual rycerze.
Kazimierz Wielki
1333-70 Kazimierz Wielki's reign sees the
definition of the "
1355 Buda. Kazimierz Wielki designates
Louis of Anjou his successor, and this is confirmed by the "stan
rycerski"; they will no longer be required to pay taxes, or pay for
military expeditions outside
Louis of Anjou
1374 Ugoda koszycka:
Council of Koszyce
defines the szlachta and the resentment at distant, "foreign"
rule led Elisabeth/Louis to cultuivate an ever wider "constituency":
in return for acceptance of the succession of Louis's daughter, the whole stan
szlachecki were exempted from taxation, except for reduced poradlne.
From now on the "urzedy ziemskie" were reserved for local szlachta
only; and no other taxes could be raised without the consent of the szlachta;
the King's right to raise taxes was abolished (no resolution yet who should
decide).
1382 Interregnum: during the zjazdy of the communitatis
at Radomsko & Wislica, the szlachta flexed their newly gained
political privileges: by consensus dynastic union with
Jadwiga 1384-1386
1384 Assembly of estates in Radomsko
produces ultimatum to Jadwiga d'Anjou to accept the Polish throne. Dignitaries
refuse chosen consort of Jadwiga (William of Brandenburg) and search for a more
useful alliance: with Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila/Jagiello.
1385 Krzewo: site of a "zjazd" of the
szlachta, who set conditions for Jogaila's marriage to Jadwiga:
- (1) confirmation of the szlachta's
privileges,
- (2) acceptance of the restrictions upon
his role, and
- (3) addition of his lands to
Jadwiga & Jagiello 1386-1399
1386 Zjazd szlachecki in
1387 Jagiello extends the rights his
Polish subjects enjoy to his Lithuanian boyars (armigeri), but
the change in social/political submission to the chief is extremely slow in the
Grand Duchy.
Jagiello 1399-1434
1399 Readjustment of Polish-Lithuanian
dynastic union. Jagiello is confirmed as King; the Gd Duchy is specified as a
personal domain fiefed to the Jagiellon family, but subject to the Polish
Crown, a status confirmed by both the Lithuanian and Polish szlachta (Wilno,
January 1401 &
1413 Horodlo was a hugely symbolic event: the
Lithuanian boyars were accepted into the Polish "clan" system, and
treated as equals.
1422 At Czerwinsk, the szlachta,
at a levée-en-masse, exacted further concessions from the King:
- (1) confiscation of estates was only
permitted upon appropriate verdicts by judges;
- (2) the office of starosta was
incompatible with the function of district judge;
- (3) Council of State now to decide on
minting money (i.e. financial policy passed to Council).
1425 Conflict between
Jagiello and szlachta over succession: sons with Zofia Holzanska were
not deemed "Polish" (i.e. Piast enough): the sejm at Brzesc Kujawski
demanded the right to elect" Jagiello's successor, and even the right to
demand confirmation of their rights from any successor. The szlachta
also secured the first concessions on personal immunity. Opposition headed by
Bishop Olesnicki of Kraków, the leader of the magnates. This dispute was not
solved until Jagiello conceded the szlachta's demands at Jedlno in 1430.
Jagiello intended to create a separate
1433 At Kraków the principle that was to
dominate the ideology of the szlachta for the next 300 years, that a
member of the estate could not be imprisoned without a warrant issued by a
competent court of justice, was established: "nullum terrigenam
possessionatum capiemus, nisi judicio rationabiliter fuerit convictus",
known more popularly as neminem captivabimus.
Wladyslaw Warnenczyk 1434-1444
Wladyslaw's reign was under
the shadow of Zbigniew Olesnicki, head of the Royal Council that ruled in his
minority, and then in his absence when he was elected King of Hungary. In the
uncertain situation, no one could change the dispensations granted earlier
under Jagiello.
Kazimierz Jagiellonczyk 1446-1492
1454 When the King called a pospolite
ruszenie of the szlachta of Wielkopolska, these massed at Cerekwica,
they decided to demand further rights from the King. Statute of Nieszawa
granted to the szlachta as the King again called for the pospolite
ruszenie of the whole Crown: this time separate charters were granted to
the szlachta of each province (omnium terrigenarum, totius
communitatis); but essentially this clarified the constitutional basis of
the local sejmiki (conventus particulares), and as the King tried
to raise taxes for the 13 year war against Prussia & Teutonic Order, he
conceded:
- (1) the King could raise taxes or call for
the levée-en-masse only with the consent of the sejmiki;
- (2) the szlachta were protected
from abuse in the law courts; and
- (3) the magnateria were classed as part of
the szlachta.
Essentially
the King allied himself with the szlachta against the magnateria and
Olesnicki's party (Olesnicki died in 1455). Vacant judicial posts were filled
by the King selecting one of four candidates suggested by the szlachta;
and higher office holders (wojewodowie, kasztelanie who automatically
had a seat in the Council, later the Senate) had to nominated during the
sessions of the Sejm.
1468 First meeting of the assemblies of
Wielkopolska and Malopolska at a joint session in the border town of
Jan Olbracht 1493-1501
1492 First "free election":
other candidates included Ks. Janusz z Mazowsza, King Wladyslaw of Hungary
& Bohemia, and Zygmunt Jagiello. Only Senators voted but the szlachta
took part in the preceding discussion. Followed by the "acclamatio
nationis". Privilege of Wilno. Alexander confers rights of
regency on the Lithuanian Council (Rada) and the conceded commoveri non
debemus to Lithuanian boyars. Led to a particular foreign policy distinct
from that of the Crown.
1493 Establishment of two distinct
bodies: the Senate (81 bishops and dignitaries) and the Sejm (54
deputies representing the local dietines/sejmiki). These as ÒordeinesÓ
rule in conjunction with the King.
1496 KONSTYTUCJA PIOTRKOWSKA. Socially and politically a turning point for the szlachta. The new statute
- (1) bound the peasant to the land: only
one, and not the eldest, son was permitted to study, enter the priesthood
or learn a trade;
- (2) the mieszczanstwo were
forbidden to own land;
- (3) only the szlachta were to be
given significant positions in the Church hierarchy.
This, the
first proper sejm, was consolidated as the central authority "with full
powers from those absent" and ultimate forum (no longer the sejmiki),
though the deputies are bound by the instructions made at the sejmiki.
Alexander 1501-1505
1501 At Mielnik, the tradition of
the sejm koronacyjny is founded. Alexander makes crucial concessions to
secure his election to the throne of Poland (Zygmunt and Wladyslaw Jagiellonczyk
of Hungary & Bohemia were also candidates): it included a definition of the
borders of Lithuania, and the concession of the right to elect the Gd Duke by
the Lithuanians as well as King at a joint sejm in Piotrkó:w. At the first sejm
of Piotrków, the szlachta turned their attention to restricting the
powers of the magnateria, who were to become impeachable for malpractice in the
recently ccreated Senate. The King is described merely as princeps
in the Senate, and his powers of appointing the starostas is limited, while the
szlachta are even conceded the right to refuse to obey the King or his
representatives: non praestanda oboedentia.
1505 Sejm at
Zygmunt I 1505-1548
1506 Coronation Sejm. Senate proposes tax and service
assessment of all subjects (szlachta, kler, mieszczanstwo & chlopi)
and this issue dominates over the next sessions of the sejm: 1512, 1525, 1527,
1538. The dominant issue becomes Zygmunt's flaunting of the provisions of Nihil
novi and granting royal lands to the magnateria on fixed-term tenures and
mortgages. These estates with time became hereditary domains; and the szlachta
demanded their restitution to the Crown: this was one of the key issues of the
demand for the egzekucja praw (Executionist movement).
1520 Statut Bydgoski. King concedes the right of the sejm
to deliberate at least once every four years.
Zygmunt II (August) 1548-1572
1548 First call by szlachta at
Sejm for a common parliament of the
1562 Piotrków Sejm at which he openly declared himself
in favour of the szlachta's reforms, and granted the "execution of
rights" in so far as it pertained to the restitution of crown lands given
to magnates since 1504 (before Nihil novi), which were returned without
compensation, and one fifth of their revenue was used to create a standing
army.
1562-69 Boyars of
1564 Z August renounced his hereditary
rights in
1566-68 The Lithuanian magnates hoped that
the Lithuanian szlachta would abandon the demand for union with
1569 "Joint"
Sejm session at
Unanimity The Sejm presented its proposed
legislation to the deputies of the Sejm, who would then retire to their own
chamber and seek for a unanimous decision. The Senate did not pass decisions;
the King heard its counsel and "concluded" the matter one way or
another, his power being restricted if all the speakers opposed the royal
proposal. But if the views were conflicting, he was bound to favour the
existing law. On the other hand, the Marshal (or Speaker) of the Sejm
"concluded" the debates, but he was bound to ask the members whether
his understanding of the chamber's views was unanimously accepted by it. If
anyone declared his opposition (contradictio), the debate would be
reopened and continued until the opponents of the measure abandoned their
opposition at the next attempt to reach a "conclusion". Unanimity
therefore had a negative character: it was enough if no formal exception was
taken by anyone, or if such opposition at all existed, if it was not upheld in
the face of the sometimes menacing persuasion from the majority group. If,
however, the deputies could not attain even such passive unanimity. or if the
chamber's negotiations with the King proved futile (no single person or small
group dared to hold up proceedings in the sixteenth century), then after six
weeks (the upper time limit of its sittings) had elapsed, the deliberations as
a whole were declared null and void.
.
Donald P.A. Pirie (1995)
RUBANNES DE L'ELBE :
Les Rubannéss de l'elbe sont un sous-groupe des Rubannéss occidentaux. Leur
civilisation se divise en plusieurs phases :
- Ackovy ( 4700 av.jc. ) :
agriculteurs-éleveurs de boeufs avec poteries à rubans linéaires à rainures
larges puis incisions fines. les villages, constitués de longues maisons
familiales en bois, sont dirigés par les hommes les plus agés.
-Sarka ( 4500 av.jc. ) :
poteries à incisions barbelées .
la société devient moins égalitaire et une aristocratie apparait. des conflits
violents opposent les tribus rubannées entre elles.
-Phase des poteries poinconnées et pointillées (4100/ 3000 av.jc) : Des indo-européens Polgariens
viennent se méler aux Rubannés de Pologne, créant ainsi la culture de Malice
(4000/3500 av.jc). Celle-ci se divise ensuite pour donner les groupes de
Brzesc-Kujawski (3750/3200 av. jc), de Jordansmühl/Jordanow (3500/3000 av.jc)
et de Kolin, Ottitz et Modlnica.
Dans les tombes, les femmes sont couchées sur le flanc gauche et les hommes sur
le droit.
Cliquez ici pour voir la note
sur la religion des Rubannés
Préhistoire
- - 8000 à - 5500 : Premières traces d'habitat sur les terres polonaises.
- -737 : Construction du fort de Biskupin.
- Lors des Ier et IIème siècle, les terres et peuplades "polonaises" sont mentionnées dans les œuvres d'historiens romains (Tacite, Ptolémée).
- 850 : « La description des castra au nord du
Danube » d'un géographe bavarois, décrit la géographie et la
répartition des peuples polanes.
Bas moyen-âge
- 960 : Le prince Mieszko Ier devient prince des Polanes (Pologne) et défait les tribus slaves entre Oder et Vistule.
- 966 :
- Mariage de la princesse Dubravka (sœur du duc de Bohême Boleslav Ier) et de Mieszko qui se fait baptiser à cette occasion et prend ainsi le titre de roi de Pologne.
- Conversion du prince Mieszko et de son peuple au christianisme.
- 968 : Fondation du premier évêché polonais à Poznan par le prince Mieszko.
- 972 : Les Polonais conduit par Mieszko remportent la bataille de Cedynia contre le margrave Hodon.
- 992 : Mort du roi Mieszko, et début du régne de Boleslas le Vaillant (992 - 1025).
- 997 : Mort de saint Adalbert de Prague durant les premières tentatives de conversion des païens vieux-prussiens.
- 1000 :
- Reconnaissance de la royauté de Boleslas le Vaillant par l'empereur du saint-empire Otton III lors de la rencontre de Gniezno.
- Création du premier archevéché polonais à Gniezno avec autorité sur les évêchés de Kolobrzeg, Wroclaw, et Cracovie.
- 1025 : Sacre officiel de Boleslas le Vaillant
- 1034 - 1058 : Régne Casimir Ier (Kazimierz), roi de Pologne.
- 1079 : Martyre de Stanislas, évêque de Cracovie qui deviendra le saint patron de la Pologne.
- 1138 : Mort du prince Boleslas Bouche-torse. Début des
guerres entres les héritiers des premier Piast. Il faudra 200 ans pour
réunifier la Pologne des Piasts.
XIIIe siècle
- 1226 : Début de l'expédition des chevaliers teutoniques en Prusse (fin en 1283).Conrad de Mazovie demande l'aide des Chevaliers Teutoniques et les installe en Basse Vistule.
- 1241 :
- Première invasion tatare dans le sud de la Pologne
- À la bataille de Liegnitz, la défaite de la chevalerie allemande et polonaise entraîne la conquête mongole de la Hongrie et de la Pologne.
- 1253 : Canonisation de Stanislas de Cracovie.
XIVe siècle
- 1300 : Unification du royaume de Pologne par Vaclav II de Pologne, roi d'origine tchèque.
- 1309 : Malbork (Marienburg) devient la capitale de l'Ordre Teutonique
- 1333 - 1370 : Casimir III (Kamizierz) le Grand, dernier roi de la dynastie des Piast. Il va unifier et renforcer le royaume de Pologne
- 1349: Annexion de la Ruthénie, par Casimir le Grand, de Halicz à Wlodzimierz (Galicie)
- 1364 : Fondation de l'université de Cracovie par le roi Casimir le Grand.
- 1385 : Union de Krewo entre le grand duché de Lithuanie et le royaume de Pologne par l'alliance de Jagellon (Jagiello) et Jadwiga (Edwige) d'Anjou, héritière de la couronne polonaise.
- 1386 : Baptême et mariage de Jagellon qui devient Vladislas II Jagellon .
- 1399 : Tamerlan stoppe Witold Jagellon, cousin de Vladislas II
Jagellon, dans son expansion vers Moscou.
XVe siècle
- 1410 :
- Witold et Vladislas remportent la bataille de Grunwald contre les Chevaliers teutoniques.
- Les Polonais et les Lituaniens défont les Chevaliers teutoniques à la bataille de Tannenberg.
- 1444 : le 10 novembre, à la Bataille de Varna, en Bulgarie, sont opposées les forces alliées des chrétiens, conduites par le roi de Pologne et de Hongrie Vladislas III Jagellon, qui y trouvera la mort, aux armées ottomanes du sultan Mourad II, qui remportent la victoire.
- 1447 - 1492 : Règne de Casimir IV (Kazimierz) Jagellon
- 1466 : Traité de Thorn : Gdansk (Dantzig) et la Prusse orientale sont placé sous suzeraineté polonaise.
- 1474 : Première imprimerie à Cracovie.
- 1477 : Casimir IV de Pologne devient roi de Bohème.
- 1490 : Casimir IV de Pologne devient roi de Hongrie.
XVIe siècle
- 1505 : Constitution Nihil novi, qui place le roi sous le contrôle de la diète.
- 1508 - 1548 : Règne du roi Sigismond (Zygmunt) le Vieux qui ouvre le siècle d'or polonais.
- 1548 - 1572 : Règne du roi Sigismond Auguste.
- 1569 : Union de Lublin : Création de la république polonaise (Fédération du royaume polonais et du grand-duché lituanien). La Pologne annexe l'Ukraine de la rive droite du Dniepr appartenant précédement au grand-duché de Lithuanie.
- 1570 : Accord de Sandomierz sur la coexistence pacifique des religions.
- 1572 : Confédération de Varsovie, fixation des conditions d'élection du roi par les nobles et notamment le respect de la tolérance religieuse.
- 1573 : Henri, duc d'Anjou, futur roi Henri III, est élu roi de Pologne (Henri Ier).
- 1576-1586 : Règne du roi Étienne (Stefan) Batory.
- 1581 : Prise de Pskov par Étienne Batory.
- 1587 : Sigismond III est élu roi (début de la dynastie des Vasa).
- 1596 : Union de Brzesc (Brest): L'Église orthodoxe de la république polonaise
passe sous l'autorité du pape et devenant ainsi une Église Uniate.
XVIIe siècle
- 1605 - 1612 : Les Polonais occupent Moscou
- 1621 : Les Polonais remportent la bataille de Chocim contre les Turcs
- 1629 : Traité d'Altmark : Les Suédois occupent presque l'intégralité du littoral de la Baltique
- 1648 : Soulèvement ukrainien de Bohdan Chmielnicki contre la noblesse polonaise
- 1650 : la Pologne est ramenée à 750 000 km² et à 7,5 millions d'habitants.
- 1655 : Invasion de la Pologne par les Suédois
- 1658 : Expulsion des sociniens de Pologne
- 1667 : Trêve d'Andruszow (Androussovo), la frontière Russo-polonaise est fixé sur le Dniepr
- 1674-1696 : Règne du roi Jan III Sobieski.
- 1683, le 12 septembre : Victoire de Kahlenberg, remportée par les chrétiens sur les Turcs, lors du second siège de Vienne. Le roi Polonais Jean III Sobieski repousse le grand vizir Turc, Kara Mustafa, arrivé aux portes de Vienne à la tête de 180 000 hommes. Sans son intervention la monarchie des Habsbourg se serait sans doute effondrée et l'islam, déjà installé dans les Balkans et en Hongrie, se serait vraisemblablement implanté jusqu'en Bohême et en Allemagne du Sud. Cette victoire polonaise marque le début du déclin européen de l'Empire ottoman et celui de l'ascension de la puissance autrichienne.
- 1686 : Grzymultowski confirme la trêve d'Andruszow et cède Kiev aux Russes
- 1697 : Le duc de Saxe Auguste II est élu roi de
Pologne (début de la dynastie saxonne).
XVIIIe siècle
- 1704 - 1733 : Le roi Augustus II de Pologne est déposé. Début du règne de Stanislav Ier de Pologne.
- 1733 : Élection d'Auguste III de Pologne
- 1764 : Élection de Stanislaw August Poniatowski, avec l'appui de son ancienne amante Catherine II de Russie.
- 1768 : Confédération de Bar de la noblesse polonaise contre l'ingérence russe, massacre de Polonais par des Ukrainiens à Human. Le soulèvement échoue.
- 1772 :
- Premier partage (démembrement) de la Pologne entre la Russie, l'Autriche et la Prusse
- La population juive atteint le demi-million de personnes, soit 4% de la population estimée à 12 millions, dont seulement 3,5 millions de Polonais "ethniques".
- 1773 : Création de la Commission de l'Éducation nationale
- 1788 - 1792 : Diète de quatre ans surnomé la Grande Diète
- 3 mai 1791 : Vote de la première constitution européenne elle est appelé Constitution du 3 mai
- 1792 : Deuxième partage entre la Russie et la Prusse.
- 1794 : Insurrection de Tadeusz Kosciuszko contre les co-partageant.
- 1795 : Troisième et dernier partage de la Pologne entre la Russie, l'Autriche et la Prusse, la Pologne est rayée de la carte.
- 1798 - 1799 : Des légions polonaises se mettent au service de
Napoléon en Italie, pour combattre l'Autriche.
XIXe siècle
- 1803 : Alexandre Ier crée une université impériale polonaise a Wilno (Vilnius).
- 1807 : Création du Grand-duché de Varsovie par Napoléon a partir de territoire enlevé a l'Autriche et a la Prusse.
- 1815 : Création du « Royaume du Congrès » dans le tronçon russe.
- 1830 - 1831 : Grande insurrection polonaise suivi d'une guerre polono-russe.
- 1846 : Massacre de nobles par la paysannerie polonaise en Galicie.
- 1848 : Participation de nombreux polonais au Printemps des Peuples dans toute l'Europe.
- 1855 : Mort d'Adam Mickiewicz à Constantinople.
- 1861 : Abolition du servage dans le tronçon russe, forte manifestation à Varsovie
- 1863 : Nouvelles insurection dans le tronçon russe.
- Avril 1864 : Pendaison du dernier chef de la rebellion, R. Traugutt.
- 1869 : L'Autriche accorde plus d'autonomie et de liberté à la Galicie.
- 1880 : Début d'une importante immigration de juifs polonais vers les États-Unis, Russie, Allemagne, Autriche, France et Argentine.
- 1894 : Nicolas II desserre l'étau russe à Varsovie.
- 1900 :
- Les Polonais "ethniques" sont comptés au nombre de 16 millions (9 millions en Pologne russe, 4 millions en Galicie (Autriche), 3 millions en Posnanie et en Silésie. Sur ces mêmes territoires, la population juive se monte à 9 millions de personnes. Un million d'émigrés se trouvent aussi en Russie, en Allemagne, en Angleterre, en France, en États-Unis.
- Varsovie compte 700 000 habitants et Lodz 300 000.
- 1901 : L'Art nouveau triomphe à Varsovie notamment avec Les Noces, une piéce de Wyspianski.
- 1904 : Résistance aux multiples tentative de germanisation de la Poznanie (sous contrôle prussien).
- 1905 : La national-démocratie obtient des sièges pour représenter la Pologne à la Douma russe
- 1911 : La Russie introduit les zemstva dans les
territoires lituano-ruthène
Première Guerre mondiale
- 1914 : Jozef Pilsudski devient commandant de la 1re brigade polonaise (sous contrôle autrichien)
- 1917 :
- Le président Wilson fait une déclaration en faveur d'une Pologne « Unie, indépendante, automnome »,
- Création de l'armée polonaise en France, celle-ci combat au côté de l'armée française contre le Reich,
- Mise en place d'un conseil de régence austro-allemands à Varsovie après en avoir repoussé les russes.
- 1918 : Restauration de l'indépendance polonaise
- 10 novembre : Pilsudski prend le pouvoir à Varsovie
- En décembre, création du parti communiste polonais
- La nouvelle Pologne réunit 19 millions de Polonais "ethniques", 7 millions de Biélorusses, Ukrainiens et Allemands, et 3 millions de juifs.
- 1919 :
- Soulèvement de la Poznanie (toujours allemande),
- Succés de la national-démocratie aux élections législatives,
- Occupation de Wilno et de Lwow par les armées polonaises
- 1920 :
- Occupation de Kiev par les Polonais, contre-offensive de l'Armée rouge repoussée à proximité de Varsovie, contre-offensive polonaise à l'est contre la Russie.
- Avec cette guerre la population juive subit des vexations diverses et fait même l'objet de pogromes.
- 1921 :
- Traité de Riga avec la russie soviétique,
- adoption de la constitution de mars,
- partage de la Silésie entre la Pologne et l'Allemagne après de
multiples insurrections.
Vers la Seconde guerre moniale
- 1922 :
- G. Narutowicz, premier président de la République polonaise, est assassiné.
- Wilno est rattaché à la Pologne.
- 1923 : Le gouvernement décide de "poloniser" la fonction publique et l'économie, pour en écarter les juifs.
- 1926 :
- Le pays est au bord de la faillite. Coup d'État du maréchal Jozef Pilsudski, héros de la résistance antirusse et des guerres de l'indépendance. 600 opposants sont massacrés à Varsovie.
- Le nouveau président met un terme au programme de "polonisation" et prêche la concorde entre les différents groupes éthniques et religieux.
- 1930 : Internement d'opposants à Brzesc.
- 1934 : Pacte de non-agression germano-polonais.
- 1935 :
- Constitution d'avril.
- Mort de Pilsudski; lors de ses funérailles nationales des extrémistes lancent aux juifs : «Grand-Père est mort, on va régler votre compte».
- 1938 : Conflit polono-lithuanien, conflit avec la Tchécoslovaquie à propos de Cieszyn (Teschen).
- 1939 :
- Le 1er septembre, l'Allemagne envahit la Pologne sans lui déclarer la guerre. L'armée polonaise se défend bien malgré la supériorité tactique de la Wehrmacht, mais elle la Russie soviétique l'envahit aussi.
- Le 28 septembre, le cinquième partage livre à l'Allemagne la moitié du pays jusqu'à Brest-Litovsk, les Soviétiques s'emparent du reste.
- Des deux côtés de la nouvelle frontière commencent massacres et purges contre la population juive qui est parquées dans des "ghetto".
- Les Soviétiques, en plus de leur côté, éliminent tous les "cadres bourgeois", civils ou militaires, chrétiens ou juifs. À Katyn, 40 000 officiers polonais seront exécutés en quelques jours et des centaines de milliers de travailleurs seront déportés vers la Sibérie. Jusqu'à l'époque du président Boris Eltsine, les communistes accuseront officiellement les nazis de ce génocide.
- 1940 : Le gouvernement en exil quitte la France pour l'Angleterre.
- 1941 :
- Le 22 juin, l'Allemagne se retourne contre son ancien allié soviétique et en moins de deux mois, la Wehrmacht conquiert toute la Pologne orientale.
- Les camps de concentration, implantées sur le territoire de la Pologne, tels Auschwitz, Treblinka et Maïdanek, vont devenir des pièces maîtresses de la "solution finale" contre les juifs, les tziganes et les résistants.
- Accord Sikorski-Maïski (alliance polono-soviétique) à Londres.
- 1942 :
- Les ghettos juifs de Pologne sont vidés (plus que 60 000 juif dans le ghetto de Varsovie ; 350 000 à sa création)
- Plus de 300 000 juifs sont envoyés à Treblinka
- 1943 :
- Insurrection du ghetto de Varsovie
- Découverte du charnier de Katyn par les Allemands
- Rupture des relations polono-soviétique, restauration du Parti Communiste Polonais en URSS
- Conférence de
Téhéran qui fixe les nouvelles frontiéres de la Pologne.
Le régime communiste
- 1944 : En avril, l'armée rouge réoccupe la région de Lvov, le 1er août, Lublin et Byalistok sont conquises, Varsovie n'est pas loin.
- Les communistes créent le Comité Polonais de libération nationale
- La capitale polonaise se soulève contre la Wehrmacht, mais Staline interdit de lui porter secours. La quasi-totalité de Varsovie (98%) sera détruite par les Allemands. L'élimination de la résistance polonaise dans cette bataille facilitera après la guerre la mainmise russe sur la Pologne et sa satellisation dans son orbite d'influence. 200 000 Polonais (civils et combattants) périssent dans ce véritable traquenard.
- 1945 :
- Le 11 janvier, les troupes russes du général Rokossovsky, en route vers Berlin, investissent Varsovie qui n'est plus qu'un champ de ruines.
- De septembre 1939 à mai 1945, plus de 6 millions de Polonais sont morts (dont 3 millions de juifs).
- L'Est du Pays est définitivement annexé par la Russie soviétique; à l'exception de Byalistok, mais en contrepartie la Pologne est autorisée à s'emparer du sud de la Prusse orientale, de Dantzig, de la Poméranie et de la Silésie : 7,5 millions d'Allemands sont expulsés de ces territoires et immédiatement remplacés par 4,5 millions de Polonais, dont 1,5 million ayant fui les provinces orientales.
- la nouvelle Pologna compte 24 millions d'habitants à 95% d'ethnie polonaise et de religion catholique. Fin 1945, la communaute juive n'est plus que de 250 000 personnes dont 100 000 en provenance des zones annexées par l'URSS.
- 1946 :
- Suite au progrome de Kielce (4 juillet), sur une accusation de "crime rituel", plus de 100 000 juifs quittent la Pologne, dont la plupart pour la France. Les juifs qui restent sont dans leur majorité proches des communistes et placent leurs espoirs dans la République populaire qui est imposée par les Soviétiques. Un certain nombre d'entre eux vont servir le nouveau régime et participer à sa mise en place.
- Conférence de Yalta, promesse d'élections libres en Pologne
- 1947 : Élections truquées, élimination de l'opposition anti-communiste
- 1948 : Création du parti ouvrier unifié polonais (PZPR), mise à l'écart de W. Gomulka
- 1952 : Adoption de la nouvelle constitution, la Pologne devient une démocratie populaire
- 1955 : Dégel de l'emprise soviétique sur la vie polonaise
- 1956 : Révolte des ouvriers à Poznan, Wladyslaw Gomulka devient premier secrétaire du parti et prend le pouvoir. La «petite révolution» va attribuer les «erreurs» du régime pro-soviétiques aux «cosmopolites infiltrés dans le parti», et les juifs vont devenir les boucs émissaires et vont être poussés à un nouvel exode.
- 1964 : Lettre ouverte au parti par Jacek Kuron et Karol Modzelewski; ils sont condamnés en juillet 1965, avec Badowski et Hass, à 3 ans et demi de prison.
- 1966 : Millénaire du baptême de la Pologne.
- 1967 : Il ne reste plus que 35 000 personnes d'origines juives, parfaitement assimilées, converties ou issues de mariages mixtes, mais cela n'empêche pas Wladyslaw Gomulka, de refaire l'opération de 1956 et de lancer une nouvelle opération "antisoniste".
- 1968 : Protestations étudiantes, purge antisémite. Les trente mille derniers juifs quittent définitivement le pays.
- 1970 : Willy Brandt reconnaît la frontiére Oder-Neisse, gèves a Gdansk, chute de Wladyslaw Gomulka remplacé par E. Gierek.
- 1975 : Révision de la constitution pour y insérer l'inaltérable amitié avec l'URSS.
- 1976 : Révoltes ouvriéres, création du KOR : comité de défence ouvrier.
- 1977 : Transformation du KOR en comité d'autodéfence sociale.
- 1978 : Karol Wojtyla est élu pape sous le nom de Jean-Paul II.
- 1980 : Triomphe de Solidarnosc.
- 1981 : Le général Jaruzelski décrete la loi martial.
- 1983 : Lech Walesa devient prix nobel de la paix.
- 1984 : Assassinat du père Popieliszko.
- 1988 : Rencontre entre le gouvernement du PZPR et
l'opposition.
Époque contemporaine
- 1989 : Tadeusz Mazowiecki devient Premier ministre
- 1990 : Le général Jaruzelski démissione, il est remplacé par Lech Walesa, président de Solidarnosc
- 1991 : Élections législatives, émiettement des partis
- 1992 : Hanna Suchocka devient Premier ministre
- 1993 : Dissolution de la diète par Walesa, retour d'une faible majorité SLD (ex-communiste du PZPR)
- 1995 : Retrait de la vie politique de Walesa et élection de A. Kwasniewski (SLD)
- 1996 : La poétesse Wislawa Szymborska reçoit le prix Nobel de Littérature
- 1997 - 2001 : Cohabitation avec la droite du gouvernement Buzek
- 1998 : Présidence de l'OSCE assuré par la Pologne
- 1999 : la Pologne adhère à l'OTAN
- 2000 :
- Réélection de Kwasniewski
- Andrzej Wajda recoit un Oscar pour l'ensemble de son œuvre
- 2001 : La gauche revient au pouvoir avec le gouvernement Miller
- 2003 : Participation à la coalition américaine en Irak, succès du référendum en faveur de l'adhésion à l'Union européenne, rejet du projet de traité constitutionnel européen
- 1er mai 2004 : Entrée dans l'Union Européenne