Umownie możemy przyjąć z pewnymi drobnymi
zastrzeżeniami, że ludność kultury przeworskiej to
słynni Wandalowie.
Cytuj:
R1a people appear to
have been the first to penetrate into Europe, with the Corded Ware (Battle Axe)
culture (3200-1800 BCE) as a natural western expansion of the Yamna culture.
They went as far west as Germany and Scandinavia. DNA analysis from the Corded
Ware culture site of Eulau confirms the presence of R1a (but not R1b) in
central Germany around 2600 BC
Cytuj:
The
Proto-Indo-Europeans belonged both R1a and R1b. Their homeland was in the
Pontic-Caspian steppe,
Cytuj:
The first expansion
of R1a took place with the westward diffusion of the Corded Ware (or Battle
Axe) culture (3200-1800 BCE) from the Yamna homeland.
o w polaczeniu z hipoteza dotyczaca kulturyry kurchanowej
(i jej nastepcy yamne) daje ciekawe efekty, jezeli kultura kurchanowa byla
rzeczywiscie bezposrednio zwiazana z haplogrupa r1a a kultura yamna z r1a1
wracajac do substratu r1a w azji
srodkowej, skoro wsrod ludow europejskich r1a (jeszcze widoczniejsze jest to
wsrod r1a1) nie widac prawie zadnego lub nawet zadnego wplywu czy to perskiego,
czy to indysjkiego czy znowu kirgijskiego lub turkmenskiego (za wyjatkiem rosji
tu tlumaczy bliskosc), a wiemy o przemieszaniu sie grup r1a na poludnie, gdzie
zostali klasa panow, nie niewolnikow, pozwala to na domniemanie, ze pewne
zapozyczenia slowne (zwlaszcza perskie) maja charakter inny niz sie postulowane
przez prof glaba, kokowiskiego, kostrzewskiego czy parczewskiego (wiem wiem
jezykoznawca jest tylko glab)
The
information about the origin and ethnic association of haplogroups on this
website should not be read as hard facts, but, as is often the case in
science, as a model in constant evolution based on the present knowledge
and understanding (of the authors). Whenever the advancement of genetics
couldn't provide irrefutable answers, we have attempted to provide the most
likely and logical hypothesis based on archeological, historical and
linguistic evidence. This page is being updated regularly to keep up with
recent studies giving additional insights or rectifying possibly erroneous
theories. Feel free to add comments or share your opinion on the forum.
Introduction
to genetic genealogy
DNA
studies have permitted to categorise all humans on Earth in genealogical
groups sharing one common ancestor at one given point in prehistory. They
are called haplogroups.
There are two kinds of haplogroups: the paternally inherited Y-chromosome
DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroups, and the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA
(mtDNA) haplogroups. They respectively indicate the agnatic (or
patrilineal) and cognatic (or matrilineal) ancestry.
Y-DNA haplogroups are useful to determine whether two apparently
unrelated individuals sharing the same surname do indeed descend from a
common ancestor in a not too distant past (3 to 20 generations). This is
achieved by comparing the haplotypes through the STR markers. Deep SNP testing allows to go back much farther in
time, and to identify the ancient ethnic group to which one's ancestors
belonged (e.g. Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Greco-Roman, Basque, Iberian,
Phoenician, Jewish, etc.).
In Europe, mtDNA haplogroups are quite evenly spread over the
continent, and therefore cannot be associated easily with ancient
ethnicities. However, they can sometimes reveal some potential medical
conditions (see diseases
associated with mtDNA mutations). Some mtDNA subclades are associated
with Jewish ancestry, notably K1a1b1a, K1a9,d
K2a2a and N1b.
DNA Facts
·Nucleotides are the alphabet of
DNA. There are four of them : adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and
cytosine (C). They always go by pairs, A with T, and G with C. Such pairs
are called "base pairs".
·The 46 chromosomes of human DNA
are composed of a total of 3,000 million base pairs.
·The Y-chromosome possess 60
million base pairs, against 153 million for the X chromosome.
·Mitochondrial DNA is found outside
the cell's nucleus, and therefore outside of the chromosomes. It consists
only of 16,569 base pairs.
·A SNP (single nucleotide
polymorphism) is a mutation in a single base pair. At present, only a few
hundreds SNP's define all the human haplogroups for mtDNA or Y-DNA.
Y-DNA
Haplogroups
Chronological
development of Y-DNA haplogroups
K => 40,000 years
ago (probably arose in northern Iran)
T => 30,000 years
ago (around the Red Sea)
J => 30,000 years
ago (in the Middle East)
R => 28,000 years
ago (in the Central Asia)
E1b1b => 26,000
years ago (in southern Africa)
I => 25,000 years
ago (in the Balkans)
R1a => 21,000 years
ago (in southern Central Asia)
R1b => 20,000 years
ago (in the Northwest Asia)
E-M78 => 18,000
years ago (in north-eastern Africa)
G => 17,000 years
ago (between India and the Caucasus)
I2 => 17,000 years
ago (in the Balkans)
J2 => 15,000 years ago
(in northern Mesopotamia)
I2b => 13,000 years
ago (in Central Europe)
R1a1 => 12,000 years
ago (north of the Black Sea)
N1c1 => 12,000 years
ago (in Siberia)
I2a => 11,000 years
ago (in the Balkans)
R1b1b2 => 10,000
years ago (north or south of the Caucasus)
J1 => 10,000 years
ago (in the Arabian peninsula)
E-V13 => 10,000
years ago (in the Balkans)
I2b1 => 9,000 years
ago (in Germany)
I2a1 => 8,000 years
ago (in Sardinia)
I2a2 => 7,500 years
ago (in the Dinaric Alps)
E-M81 => 5,500 years
ago (in the Maghreb)
I1 => 5,000 years
ago (in Scandinavia)
R1b-L21 => 4,000
years ago (in Central or Eastern Europe)
R1b-S28 => 3,500
years ago (around the Alps)
R1b-S21 => 3,000
years ago (in Frisia or Central Europe)
I2b1a => less than
3,000 years ago (in Britain)
Map of early
Bronze Age cultures in Europe around 4,500 to 5,000 years ago
Hypothetical map of Y-DNA haplogroup
distribution in Europe about 2,000 years ago
This
map was composed by calculating modern
regional densities and withdrawing the supposed influence of migrations
that took place in the last 2000 years. Only the main/dominant haplogroups
are represented for each region. Haplogroup E and R1b encompass various
subclades if the subclade not specified.
Large font = over 25% of
the population Small font = between 10 and
25% of the population
European haplogroups
Haplogroup R1b
(Y-DNA)
R1b (see distribution map) is the most common haplogroup in
Western Europe, reaching over 90% of the population in some parts of
western France, northern Spain or Ireland. It is widespread as far as
Central Asia and Africa.
Haplogroup R1* might have originated in southern Central Asia (between
the Caspian and the Hindu Kush), then developed into R1b* then R1b1* in the
northern part of the Middle East during the Ice Age. It presumptively moved
to northern Anatolia and across the Caucasus during the early Neolithic,
where it became R1b1b. The Near Eastern leftovers evolved into R1b1a (M18),
now found at low frequencies among the Lebanese and the Druze.The Phoenicians
(who came from modern day Lebanon) spread this R1b1a and R1b1* to their
colonies, notably Sardinia and the Maghreb.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans belonged both R1a and R1b. Their homeland was
in the Pontic-Caspian steppe, in what is known as the Kurgan culture (7000-2200 BCE). The presence of R1b in
modern times between the Black Sea and the Caucasus hints at the Maykop
culture (3500-2500 BCE) as their most plausible homeland, while the
Eurasian steppes to the north were R1a territory.
R1b1b2 probably appeared during Maykop culture. It was an advanced
Neolithic culture of farmers and herders, and one of the very first to
develop metalworking, and therefore metal weapons. Stuck between two seas
and the Caucasus, they imaginably traded actively around the Black Sea,
notably with the other R1b people from northern Anatolia (those that didn't
cross the Caucasus and might be the ancestors of the Hittites).
Horse were first domesticated in the neighbouring Yamna culture (modern
Ukraine) approximately 3500 BCE, and chariots were invented in the
north-eastern steppes around 2000 BCE. Cavalry and chariots played an vital
role in the subsequent Indo-European migrations, allowing them to move
quickly and defeat easily anybody they encountered. Combined with advanced
bronze weapons and their sea-based culture, R1b people are excellent
candidates for being the mysterious Sea Peoples,
who raided the eastern shores of the Mediterranean during the second
millennium BCE.
The European branch
The Indo-Europeans' bronze weapons and horses would have given them a
tremendous advantage over the autochthonous inhabitants of Europe, namely
the native haplogroup I (descendant of Cro-Magnon), and the early Neolithic
herders and farmers (G2a and E-V13). This allowed R1a and R1b to quickly
replace (in all likelihood through warfare) most of the native male
lineages, although female lineages seem to have been less affected.
A comparison with the Indo-Iranian invasion of South Asia shows that 40%
of the male linages of northern India are R1a, but only 20% of the female
lineages could be of Indo-European origin (H, J, K, T, U). The impact of
the Indo-Europeans was more severe in Europe because European society 4,000
years ago was less developed in terms of agriculture, technology (no bronze
weapons) and population density than that of the Indus Valley civilization. This is particularly true of
the native Western European cultures where farming arrived much later than
in the Balkans or central Europe. Greece was the most advanced of European
societies and was the least affected in terms of haplogroup replacement.
Native European Y-DNA haplogroups (I1, I2a, I2b) also survived better in
regions that were more difficult to reach or less hospitable, like
Scandinavia, Brittany, Sardinia or the Dinaric Alps.
R1b1b2 is thought to have arrived in central and western Europe around
2300 BCE, by going up the Danube from the Black Sea coast. This correspond
to an archeological vacuum in the old Maykop homeland, so the migration
must have been on a massive scale, maybe due to pressure from other (R1a)
Indo-European people from the north. There might have been several
consecutive waves across the Black Sea to the Danube, but the largest one
between 2500 BCE (end of the Maykop culture) and 2300 BCE (beginning of the
Unetice culture).
It is doubtful that the Beaker
culture (2800-1900 BCE) was already Indo-European (although they were
influenced by the Corded Ware culture), because they were the continuity of
the native Megalithic cultures. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that the
following Unetice (2300-1600 BCE), Tumulus
(1600-1200 BCE), Urnfield (1300-1200 BCE) and Hallstatt
(1200-750) cultures were linked to the spread of R1b to Europe, as they
abruptly introduce new technologies and a radically different lifestyle.
These Proto-Italo-Celto-Germanic R1b people had settled around the Alps
by 2300 BCE, and judging from the spread of bronze working, reached Iberia
by 2250 BCE, Britain by 2100 BCE and Ireland by 2000 BCE. This is assumably
when the R1b-L21 lineage came to the British Isles, from southern Germany.
A second R1b expansion took place from the Urnfield/Hallstatt culture
around 1200 BCE, pushing west to the Atlantic, north to Scandinavia, and as
far east as Greece and Anatolia (=> see Dorian invasion below).
The new Bronze Age culture flourished around the Alps (Unetice to early
Hallstatt) thanks to the abundance of metal in the region, and laid the
foundation for the classical Celtic culture. The Celtic Iron Age (late
Halstatt, from 800 BCE) may have been brought by a more recent wave of
immigrants from new Koban culture (1100-400 BCE) in the eastern Black Sea
homeland.
Alpine Celts of Hallstatt are associated with the S28 (a.k.a. U152) mutation,
although not exclusively. The Italic branch (also S28/U152) is thought to
have entered Italy by 1200 BCE, but there were certainly several succesive
waves, as attested by the later arrival of the Cisalpine Celts. The Belgae
were another S28/U152 branch, an extension of the La Tène culture
northward, following the Rhine, Moselle and Meuse rivers.
R1b-S21 (a.k.a. U106) is found at high concentrations in the Netherlands
and northern Germany. Its presence in other parts of Europe can be
attributed to the 5th- and 6th-century Germanic migrations. The Frisians
and Saxons spread this haplogroup to the British Isles, the Franks to
Belgium and France, and the Lombards to Austria and northern Italy. The
high concentration of S21/U106 around Austria hints that it could have
originated there in the Hallstatt period, or originated around the Black
Sea and moved there during the Hallstatt period. In fact, southern Germany
and Austria taken together have the highest diversity of R1b in Europe.
Besides S21, the three major first level subclades of R1b1b2a1b (L21, S28,
M167) are found in this area at reasonable frequencies to envisage a spread from the Unetice to Hallstatt homeland to the
rest of western Europe.
The Hittites
(2000-1200 BCE) were the first Indo-Europeans to defy (and defeat) the
mighty Mesopotamian and Egyptian empires. The Hittite ruling class was
plausibly an offshoot of the Maykop culture that had entered northern
Anatolia via the sea route and conquered the Hattian kingdom. The Hattians
might have had some R1b from the old Anatolian branch (from the early
Neolithic) mixed with the other Anatolian E-M78, G2a and J2 people.
Other waves of (seaborne) R1b1b2 invaders from the Pontic-Caspian
homeland are thought to have settled in Anatolia a
few centuries later, where they became the Luwians, Lycians and Lydians
(1450 BCE). Troy
was most probably a colony to secure the trade routes of the Sea Peoples
between the Black Sea and the Aegean. The Trojans were Luwian speakers
related to the Hittites, with proven cultural ties to the culture of the
Pontic-Caspian steppe. The first city of Troy dates back to 3000 BCE, right
in the middle of the Maykop period, and exatly at the time the first galleys
were made.
The Maykop culture was succeeded by the Srubna
culture (1600-1200 BCE), then the Colchian
culture (1200-600 BCE), which extended into the western Caucasus. Its
further expansion to the south of the Caucasus correspond to the first
historical mentions of the Proto-Armenian branch of Indo-European languages
(around 1200 BCE).
The presence of R1b in Greece could be attributed to the Dorian invasion
(1200 BCE), which correspond to the expansion of the Urnfield culture
throughout Europe and Anatolia, and to the destruction of the Near-Eastern
civilizations by the Sea Peoples. Greek R1b (including southern Italy) is
divided between the Proto-Celtic S116/P312 and the eastern variety (known
as ht35) from Anatolia. If the Dorian were ht35, they could be the
descendants of the Trojans (seeking revenge for the destruction of their
city a few decades earlier), or of the Hittites (or a combination of both).
If they were S116/P312, it means that they could have been Proto-Celts from
Hallstatt. Of course it can't be ruled out that the Trojans asked their
"cousins" from Hallstatt for help to defeat the Myceneans, thus
invading as a hybrid R1b faction of S116/P312 and ht35. The S116/P312
element could also be due to the later Roman occupation of Greece.
The Cimmerians were the last recorded to leave the Pontic-Anatolian
homeland around 800 BCE, passing through Anatolia before going to Europe.
The Athenians of Classical Greece (510-323 BCE) made a
point to re-established the connections with all the Black Sea ports
afterwards, as if to confirm their new genealogical tie with the old
Dorian/Trojan homeland (or simply because they could, for the first time in
history, since most of the R1b civilization had emigrated).
The Central Asian branch
An early group of R1b1b people is thought to have migrated from Caspian
Sea region to Central Asia, where it evolved into the R1b1b1 (M73) branch.
This variety of R1b occurs almost exclusively in very specific Central
Asian populations. The highest percentages were observed among the Uyghurs
(20%) of Xinjiang in north-west China, the Hazara
people of Afghanistan (32%), and the Bashkirs
(55%) of the Abzelilovsky district of Bashkortostan in Russia (border of
Kazakhstan).
Central Asian R1b1b1 could correspond to the Tocharian
branch of the Indo-Europeans. It is possible that the Tocharians split from
the main R1b body as early as 7,000 BCE. Over the centuries some groups of
these nomadic tribes ended up around the southern Urals, others in the
Tarim Basin (Xinjiang) or in southern Central Asia.
Mummies
of fair-haired Caucasian people were found in the Tarim Basin, the
oldest of which date back to 1800 BCE. The modern inhabitants of the Tarim
Basin, the Uyghurs, belong both to this R1b-M73 subclade (about 20%) and to
R1a1 (about 30%). This could mean that they had become a hybrid R1b-R1a
society by the time they reached the Tarim Basin. But R1a1 could also have
arrived independently during the Indo-Iranian migrations, or much later
through some nomadic Scytho-Iranian tribes.
The
earliest known back migration of R1b was from Asia to Africa and took place
around 15,000 years ago. A group of R1b1* people moving from the Levant to
Egypt, Sudan and spreading in different directions inside Africa to Rwanda,
South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Congo, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon,
Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau. The hotspot is Cameroon. R1b1* was
observed at a frequency of up to 95% in some tribes of northern Cameroon
(like the Kirdi),
and about 15% nationwide. It is in all likelihood where the early R1b
people first settled, then spread south and east along the coast.
Other back migrations occured from Europe to the Near East and Central
Asia during the Antiquity and Middle Ages. R1b-S28 was found in Romania,
Turkey and at the border of Kazakhstan and
Kyrgyzstan. Some of it was surely brought by the Alpine Celts (Hallstatt/La
Tène culture), known to have advanced along the Danube, and created
the Galatian
kingdom in central Anatolia. The rest could just as well be Roman,
given that R1b-S28 is the dominant form of R1b in the Italian peninsula.
Some have hypothetised that Roman legions went as far as Central Asia or
China and never came back, leaving their genetic marker in isolated
pockets. See also Were the Romans
and the Alpine Celts close cousins ?
A small percentage of Western European R1b subclades were also found
among Christian communities in Lebanon. They are most likely descendants of
the crusaders.
Subclades of R1b
Defining
mutation
Subclade
(previous name)
Time of
origin
(approximate)
Place of highest frequency
Most prevalent ancient ethnic group
M18
R1b1a (R1b1a)
11,000 ybp
Levant,
Sardinia
Phoenician,
Druze
M73
R1b1b1 (R1b1b)
9,500 ybp
Central
Asia
Tocharian
M269
R1b1b2 (R1b1c)
9,500 ybp
Western
Europe
Italo-Celto-Anatolian
L23/S141
R1b1b2a
7,000 ybp
Western
Europe
Italo-Celto-Anatolian
L11/S127, P311/S128,
P310/S129
R1b1b2a1
5,000 ybp
Western
Europe
Italo-Celto-Germanic
M405/S21/U106
R1b1b2a1a (R1b1c9)
3,000 ybp
Frisia,
Benelux, England, Austria, northern Italy
West
Germanic (Frisian, Anglo-Saxon, Lombard)
M467/S29/U198
R1b1b2a1a1 (R1b1c9b)
1,800 ybp
Southern
England + northern Germany
Germanic
(Anglo-Saxon)
P107
R1b1b2a1a2
1,800 ybp
Germanic
L1/S26
R1b1b2a1a3 (R1b1c9a)
1,800 ybp
Southern
& eastern England, Norway, southern Germany, and Spain
Germanic
L48
R1b1b2a1a4
Germanic
L44 => L47
R1b1b2a1a4a
Germanic
L5
R1b1b2a1a5
1,800 ybp
Germanic
L6
R1b1b2a1a6
1,800 ybp
Germanic
P312/S116
R1b1b2a1b
4,500 ybp
Western
Europe
Italo-Celtic
M65
R1b1b2a1b1 (R1b1c2)
3,500 ybp
Basque
country
Basque
M153
R1b1b2a1b2 (R1b1c4)
3,350 ybp
Basque
country and Gascony
Basque
M167/SRY2627
R1b1b2a1b3 (R1b1c6)
2,850 ybp
Spain
(esp. Catalonia), Western France, Cornwall, Wales
Basque,
Catalan, Gascon, Breton, Cornish
S28/U152
R1b1b2a1b4 (R1b1c10)
3,500 ybp
Rhine
& Meuse region, Alps, northern Italy
Alpine
Celts (Hallstatt-La Tène), Italics
M126
R1b1b2a1b4a (R1b1c3)
2,500 ybp
Found
in Germany, England and Ireland
Celtic
M160
R1b1b2a1b4b (R1b1c5)
2,000 ybp
Found
in Germany and Switzerland
Alpine
Celtic
L2/S139
R1b1b2a1b4c
2,500 ybp
Found
in Italy, Germany, Belgium, Britain, Ireland, Norway
Alpine
Celtic
L20/S144
R1b1b2a1b4c1
1,800 ybp
Found
in England, France and Italy
Alpine
Celtic
M228
R1b1b2a1b4c1a
Found
in northern Italy
Alpine
Celtic
L3
R1b1b2a1b4c2
Found
in Germany and England
Alpine
Celtic
L4
R1b1b2a1b4d
Found
in Latvia and Poland
S68
R1b1b2a1b5 (R1b1c11)
3,500 ybp
Sweden
and Scotland
Germanic
L21/S145
R1b1b2a1b6
4,000 ybp
Ireland,
Britain, Germany
Celtic,
Brythonic, Gaelic
M37
R1b1b2a1b6a (R1b1c1)
3,000 ybp
Ireland,
Britain, France, Germany
Celtic
M222
R1b1b2a1b6b (R1b1c7)
3,000 ybp
North-west
Ireland and west Scotland
Scottish
Irish
P66
R1b1b2a1b6c (R1b1c8)
2,500 ybp
?
?
L7
R1b1b2a1b7
?
?
L8
R1b1b2a1b8
?
?
L9, L10
R1b1b2a1b9
?
?
Haplogroup R1a
(Y-DNA)
R1a (distribution map) is thought to have been the dominant
haplogroup among the Indo-European speakers who evolved into the
Indo-Iranian, Mycenaean Greek, Macedonian, Thracian, Baltic and Slavic
branches.
The most likely origin of the Proto-Indo-Europeans lies in the Kurgan culture
(7000-3000 BCE) and the subsequent Yamna culture
(3500-2200 BCE), between modern Ukraine and south-west Russia. Their
expansion is linked to the domestication of horses in the Eurasian steppes,
and the invention of the chariot (see R1b above).
The western branch
The first expansion of R1a took place with the westward diffusion of the
Corded
Ware (or Battle Axe) culture (3200-1800 BCE) from the Yamna homeland.
This resulted in R1a being the dominant haplogroup in the northern half of
Eastern Europe nowadays, like in Poland (56% of the population), Ukraine
(50%), Belarus (45%), Russia (40%), Slovakia (40%), Latvia (40%), Lithuania
(38%) and the Czech Republic (34%)
The Germanic branch of Indo-European languages probably inherited more
from the R1b cultures, although R1a is likely to have arrived earlier in
Scandinavia, during the Corded Ware period. R1a people would have mixed
with the pre-Germanic I1 aborigines to create the Nordic
Bronze Age (1800-500 BCE). R1b would have reached Scandinavia later as a
northward migration from the contemporary Hallstatt
culture (1200-500 BCE). The first truly Germanic tongue could have been
a blend of Hallstatt Proto-Celtic and the Corded-Ware
Proto-Slavic with a few pre-Germanic loan words. The fact that present-day
Scandinavia is composed of roughly 40% of I1, 20% of R1a and 40% of R1b
reinforces the idea that Germanic ethnicity and language had acquired a
tri-hybrid character by the Iron Age.
The Corded Ware culture was followed by the Trzciniec
culture (1700-1200 BCE) and the Lusatian
culture (1300-500 BCE) in modern Balto-Slavic countries.
Historically, no other part of Europe was invaded a
higher number of times by R1a steppe peoples than the Balkans.
Chronologically, the first R1a invaders came with the westward expansion of
the Corded Ware culture (from about 3200 BCE), then the Mycenaean invasion
(1600 BCE), followed by the Thracians (1500 BCE), the Illyrians (around
1200 BCE), the Huns and the Alans (400 CE), the Avars, the Bulgars and the
Serbs (all around 600 CE), and the Magyars (900 CE), among others. These
peoples originated from different parts of the Eurasian steppes, anywhere
between Eastern Europe and Central Asia, which is why such high STR
diversity is found within Balkanic R1a nowadays. It is not yet possible to
determine the ethnic origin for each variety of R1a, apart from the fact
that about any R1a is associated with tribes from Eurasian steppe at one
point in history.
The eastern branch
The eastern branch of the R1a steppe people was the Andronovo
culture (2300-1000 BCE), around modern Kazakhstan, which correspond to
the Indo-Iranian branch of languages. Their migration to the south have
resulted in high R1a frequencies in southern Central Asia, Iran and the
Indian subcontinent. The highest frequency of R1a (about 65%) is reached in
a cluster around Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan. In India,
15 to 45% of the population is R1a, depending on the region and caste. Over
70% of the Brahmins (highest caste in Hindusim) belong to R1a1, due to a
founder effect.
Distribution of haplogroup R1a in Eurasia
Haplogroup I (Y-DNA)
I
is the oldest haplogroup in Europe and in all probability the only one that
originated there (apart from deep subclades of other haplogroups). It is
thought to have arrived from the Middle East as haplogroup IJ around 35,000
years ago, and developed into haplogroup I approximately 25,000 years ago.
This means that Cro-Magnons most probably belonged (exclusively ?) to IJ or
I. Nowadays haplogroup I accounts for 10 to 45% of the population in most
of Europe. It is divided in four main subclades.
The megalithic structures (5000-1200 BCE) of Europe were built by I
people.
Haplogroup I1 (formerly I1a, distribution map) is the most common I subclade. It is
found mostly in Scandinavia and Northern Germany, where it can represent
over 35% of the population. Associated with the Norse ethnicity, it is
found in all places invaded by the ancient Germanic tribes and the Vikings.
During the Neolithic period, pre-I1 and I1 people were part of the
sucessive Ertebølle culture (5300-3950 BCE) and Funnelbeaker
culture (4000-2700 BCE). The Corded Ware
period (3200-1800 BCE) marks the arrival of the Indo-European R1a
people from the Ukrainian steppes.
I1 is identified by at least 15 unique mutations, which indicates that
this lineage has been isolated for a long period of time, or experienced a
serious population bottleneck. Although the first mutation splitting I1
away from I2 may have arisen as long as 20,000 years ago, people belonging
to this haplogroup all descend from a single man who lived less than 5,000
years ago. This corresponds to the arrival of the Indo-European, suggesting
that a high percentage of the indigenous I1 men could possibly have
been killed by the new immigrants.
Haplogroup I2 might have originated in southeastern Europe some
17,000 years ago and developed into four main subgroups : I2a1, I2a2, I2b1
and I2b2.
I2a1 (formerly I1b2, distribution map) is found chiefly among the Sardinians
and the Basques, and is rarely found outside Iberia, Western France, the
West coast of Italy and the Mediterranean coast of the Maghreb. It accounts
for approximately 40% of all Y-DNA haplogroups among the Sardinians. I2a1
is estimated to be 8,000 years old.
I2a2 (formerly I1b, distribution map) is typical of the Dinaric Slavs
(Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks). Its highest density is observed around
ex-Yugoslavia and Moldova, but it is also common to a lower extent in
Albania, Northern Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Belarus, and
southwestern Russia.
The Neolithic period in I2a1 and I2a2 territory (Illyria, Italy,
Sardinia, Mediterranean coast of France and Spain) matches the Printed-Cardium
Pottery culture (5000-1500 BCE), that is believed to have started with
the arrival of E-V13 and G2a farmers and herders from Thessaly (northern
Greece). It was followed by the Terramare
culture (1500-1000 BCE) in the Bronze Age. The R1b Celto-Italic people
are thought to have crossed the Alps and invaded the Italian peninsula
around 1,000 BCE, replacing most of the indigenous I2a, G2a and E-V13
people (especially in the northern half).
I2b (formerly I1c, distribution map) is associated with the pre
Celto-Germanic people of North-Western Europe, such as the megaliths builders
(5000-1200 BCE). The wide variety of STR markers within I2b could make it
as much as 13,000 years old.
I2b is found in all Western Europe, but apparently survived better the
Indo-European invasions (=> see R1b above) in northern Germany, and was
reintroduced by the Germanic invasions during the late Roman period.
Nowadays, I2b peaks in central and northern Germany (10-20%), the Benelux
(10-15%) as well as in northern Sweden. It is also found in 3 to 10% of the
inhabitants of Denmark, East England, and Northern France. It is rare in
Norway, which concords with the fact that it hasn't been invaded by people
from northern Germany.
There are two major subclades : I2b1 (M223+) and I2b2
(L38/S154+), further subdivided in at least 4 subclades each, although little
is known about them yet. The subclade I2b1a (M284+) occurs almost
exclusively in Britain, where it seemingly developed about 3,000 years ago.
Near-Eastern haplogroups
Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)
J is a Middle Eastern
haplogroup, divided into the northern J2 and the southern J1. J2 is by far
the most common variety in Europe.
J2 originated in northern Mesopotamia, and
spread westward to Anatolia and southern Europe, and eastward to Persia and
India. J2 is related to the Ancient Etruscans, (Minoan) Greeks, southern
Anatolians, Phoenicians, Assyrians and Babylonians.
In Europe, J2 reaches its highest frequency in Greece (especially in
Crete, Peloponese and Thrace), southern and central Italy, southern France,
and southern Spain. The ancient Greeks and Phoenicians were the main
driving forces behind the spread J2 around the western and southern
Mediterranean.
J2 is thought to have arrived in Greece from Anatolia in the early
Neolithic, or possibly even earlier. J2b perhaps originated in
Greece (or in Anatolia ?), like haplogroup E-V13 (see below) to which it is
closely linked. The propagation of J2b and E-V13 (as well as a minority of
T) follows the diffusion of agriculture across the Balkans, the Danube
basin, and until the north of France to the west, and Moldova to the east.
Apart from south-east Europe, J2b is also found all around India, but only
at moderate levels in between Europe and India.
The world's maximum concentrations of J2a is in Crete (32% of the
population). The subclade J2a8 appears to be native to Crete. J2a also
reaches high frequencies in Anatolia and the southern Caucasus. A likely
place of origin is northern Mesopotamia.
Interestingly, J2a* is found as far as India and is largely confined to
the upper castes. The Brahmin (priest) caste is made up almost exclusively
of haplogroups R1a1, R2, and J2a (although R1a1 makes up two thirds of the
lineages). These 3 haplogroups have Bronze Age coalescence time and are thought
to represent the gene flow of the Indo-Aryan
invasion of the Indian subcontinent about 3,500 years ago.
J1 is a typically Semitic haplogroup, making up
most of the population of the Arabian peninsula. Its highest density is
observed in Yemen (72%), which could be its native place. The Muslim
conquest of the Middle East, North Africa, and to a lower extent also to
Spain and Sicily, spread J1 far beyond Arabia, creating a new Arabic world.
A considerable part of Jewish people belong to J1 and J2, although J2 is
more common. J1 is the Cohen
Modal Haplotype, meaning that about three quarters of the people called
Cohen, Kohen, or a variant belong to a specific J1 haplotype. In the
Hebrew Bible the common ancestor of all Cohens is identified as Aaron, the
brother of Moses.
Haplogroup E1b1b (Y-DNA)
Haplogroup
E1b1b (formerly E3b, distribution map) represents the last major migration
out of Africa into Europe. It is believed to have first appeared in the
Horn of Africa or southern Africa approximately 26,000 years ago and
dispersed to the Middle East during the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic
periods.
On the European continent it has the highest concentration in north-west
Greece, Albania and Kosovo, then fading around the Balkans, the rest of
Greece and Western Turkey. Outside Europe, it is also found in most of the
Middle East, northern and eastern Africa, especially in Morocco, Lybia,
Egypt Yemen, Somalia, Ethiopia and South Africa.
The vast majority of Europeans and Near Easterners belong to E1b1b1a
(or E-M78, formerly E3b1a). E-M78 is thought to migrated out of Egypt in
the early Neolithic to colonise the Levant, Anatolia and Greece, where it
mixed with the J2 inhabitants. E-M78 then evolved into 4 main
branches : E1b1b1a1 (E-V12), E1b1b1a2 (E-V13), E1b1b1a3 (E-V22) and
E1b1b1a4 (E-V65), each further subdivided in "a" and
"b" subclades.
E-M78 from the Near East settled in northern Greece circa 8,500 years
ago, launching the Thessalian Neolithic (6500-2500 BCE). E-V13 could
have originated in Thessaly around 8,000 years ago, before expanding
towards the Balkans. In the following millennia, the expansion of E-V13
correlates with the spread of Linear
Pottery culture (5500-4500 BCE) from the Balkans to Central Europe and
Germany. Owing to this early introduction to Europe, E-V13 is now by far
the most common E subclade found among Europeans.
E-V13 is also associated with the ancient Greek expansion and colonisation.
Outside of the Balkans and Central Europe, it is particularly common in
Southern Italy, Cyprus and Southern France, all part of the Classcial ancient Greek world.
E-V22 is the predominant subclade in the Levant and is therefore
associated with the Phoenicians and Jews. It is also common in Egypt, where
it might have originated. The Phoenicians spread E-V22 to Sicily, Sardinia,
southern Spain and the Maghreb, and the Jews to Spain and Italy.
Approximately half of Spanish and Italian E are V-22 (Jewish-Phoenician),
and the other half V-13 (Greek).
E-V12 is the most common subclade of M78 in Egypt. Its low presence
around Greece and Anatolia indicates that it probably already existed when
E moved there in the early Neolithic.
E-V65 is found in North Africa, with a maximum frequency in Lybia, then
Morocco. It is also likely to have originated in Egypt. In Europe it is
found at low frequencies in Greece and Sicily, but interestingly makes up
one fourth of Sardinian E. It could be due to immigration from the
Phoenician colonies in the Maghreb to Sardinia (the Sardinian haplogroup
I2a1 is also present at low frequencies along the coast of Algeria and
Tunisia, confirming exchanges of population between the two regions, maybe
when both were Phoenician colonies).
E1b1b1b (E-M81, formerly E3b1b) is characteristic of the Berbers
of North-West Africa. In some parts of Morocco E1b1b1b can peak at 80% of
the population. This sub-hapolgroup is also found in Iberia, Italy and
southern France, with the highest concentrations in southern Portugal (12%)
and decreasing as we move north.
Expansion of haplogroup E from Africa to Europe from the
pre-Neolithic to the Phoenician colonization (9500-800 BCE)
Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)
G has its roots in around the
Caucasus. It is found mostly in mountainous regions between the Near East
and India (Caucasus, Iran, Afghanistan, Kashmir), but also in Central Asia
(Kazakhstan), Europe and North Africa.
Most Europeans belong to the G2a subclade, and most northern and
western Europeans more specifically to G2a3b (or to a lower extend G2a3a). About all G2c
Europeans are Ashkenazi Jews. The discovery of G2c subclades around
Afghanistan indicates that it could have originated in that part of the
world. G1 is found predominantly in Iran, but is also found in
Central Asia (Kazakhstan). A famous members of haplogroup G was Joseph
Stalin (G2a1), who was of Georgian origin.
There are several theories regarding the origin of G2a in Europe. There
are doubtlessly cumulative rather than exclusive.
Neolithic hypothesis
G2a
makes up 5 to 10% of the population of Mediterranean Europe, but is fairly
rare in Northern Europe. The only places where haplogroup G2 exceeds 10% of
the population in Europe are Switzerland, the Tyrol, south-central Italy
(Molise, Central and Southern Apennine), Sardinia, northern Greece
(Thessaly) and Crete - all mountainous and relatively isolated regions.
Chronologically, the first hypothesis is the advance of Neolithic
farmers and herders from Anatolia to Europe between 9,000 and 6,000 years
ago. It is likely that these Caucasian migrants brought with them sheep and
goats, which were domesticated south of the Caucasus arbout 12,000 years
ago. This may explain why haplogroup G is more common in mountainous areas,
be it in Europe or in Asia.
Haplogroup G has also been linked to the spread of metalworking from the
Caucasus or Anatolia to places like Sardinia. The age of G2a combined with
geographic continuity of G2a from Anatolia to Thessaly to the Italian
peninsula, Sardinia, south-central France and eastern Spain strongly suggest
that G2a is connected to the Printed-Cardium
Pottery culture (5000-1500 BCE).
A Neolithic introduction of G to Europe would undeniably correspond to G2a3,
which is by far the most common and diversified subclade in Europe.
Roman hypothesis
It
is most likely that G2a arrived in Europe during the Neolithic and that the
Romans helped spread it around. Migrations within the Roman Empire probably
contributed to a moderate increase of G2a northward to Gaul and Britain,
Indeed, the frequency of haplogroup G decreases with the distance from the
boundaries of the Roman Empire, Haplogroup G is extremely rare Nordic and
Baltic countries nowadays, despite the fact that agriculture reached those
regions around the same time as Britain or Ireland.
Alanic hypothesis
The
only ethnic group that has a majority of haplogroup G nowadays are the
Ossetians in the Caucasus, in the modern Russian Republic of North
Ossetia-Alania. They are thought to descend directly from the Alans, a
Central Asian tribe related to the ancient Samartians. The medieval Kingdom
of Alania was located in the northern Caucasus, in present-day Georgia
and Ossetia.
G2a has been observed at a slightly higher frequencies in Picardy and
Flanders than in surrounding regions. It has been hypothetised that G2a was
brought to northern France and Belgium by the Alans, who traversed all
continental Europe during the barbarian invasions in the 5th century and
founded a short-lived kingdom in northern France.
Nonetheless, if there is Alanic G in Europe it must certainly belong to
other subclades than those from the Neolithic period (namely G2a3). G2a1
being the most common variety in the Caucasus nowadays, the fairly recent
Alanic migration (from a genetic point of view)
could have carried that particular subclade. In fact, G2a1 has been found
all along the Alanic migration route (Hungary, France, Spain), as well as
in Britain (Samartian element ?), but hardly anywhere else.
Scythian hypothesis
Romans
were known to recruit Scythian or Sarmatian
horsemen in their legions. According to C. Scott Littleton in his book From
Scythia to Camelot, several Knights of the Round Table were of Scythian
origin, and the the legend of Holy Grail itself originated in ancient
Scythia. This hypothesis was also taken up in the 2004 movie King
Arthur, which opens with the arrival of Scytho-Roman cavalry in
Britain. However, Scythians were steppe people more likely to belong to
haplogroup R1a. If any of them did belong to G, they presumably were G1,
not G2a. This would explain the few cases of G1 in north-western Europe though.
Haplogroup T (Y-DNA)
T is a rare haplogroup in
Europe (less than 1% of the population). It originated around the Red Sea
(maybe in Ethiopia) at least 30,000 years ago, making it one of the oldest
haplogroups found in Eurasia. It is most common in north-east Africa and
the west coast of the Arabian peninsula, where it accounts for
approximately 5 to 8% of the male lineages. Besides these regions and
Europe, T is found as far as southern India, Russia, Tanzania and Cameroon.
Its highest density is actually found among the Fulbe people of Cameroon
(18% of the population).
Within Europe there are a few pockets with surprisingly high densities
of haplogroup T, like the town of Sciacca in Sicily (18%), on the Spanish
island of Ibiza (17%) or Serbia (7%). The populations of Italy, Portugal,
Greece, and (oddly enough) Estonia, all have between 3 and 4% of haplogroup
T.
The spread of haplogroup T in Europe is closely linked to the expansion
of E1b1b from Egypt and the Near East to the Balkans and Danube basin. Its
presence around the Mediterranean can be attributed to the Phoenicians
colonisation (1200-800 BCE). The pocket in Estonia might be due to a founder
effect in the region's Jewish population. Among famous people, Thomas
Jefferson belonged to haplogroup T.
Other haplogroups found in Europe
Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)
N is found among Uralic
speakers, from Finland to Siberia, and at minor frequencies as far as Korea
and Japan. In Europe, haplogroup N is only found at high frequencies among
modern Finns (58%), Lithuanians (42%), Latvians (38%), Estonians (34%) and
northern Russians.
Haplogroup N is believed to have originated in Southeast Asia
approximately 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, but the N1c1 subclade found in
Europe likely arose in Southern Siberia circa 12,000 years ago, and spread
to North-East Europe 10,000 years ago.
Haplogroup N is associated with the Kunda culture
(8000-5000 BCE) and the Comb
Ceramic culture (4200-2000 BCE), which evolved into Finnic and
pre-Baltic people.The Indo-European Corded Ware
culture (3200-1800 BCE) progressively took over the Baltic region and
southern Finland from 2,500 BCE. The merger of the two gave rise to the
hybrid Kiukainen culture (2300-1500 BCE). Modern Baltic people have a roughly equal proportion of haplogroup N1c1 and R1a,
resulting from this merger of Uralic and Slavic cultures.
Haplogroup Q (Y-DNA)
Q is thought to be the dominant haplogroup of the Huns, who
invaded Europe in the 5th century, and is only found in 2% of the people in
Hungary, where the one Hunnic tribe finally settled. Another group of Huns
could have settled in Sweden and/or Norway, where Q is also found in among
0.5% of the population.
Haplogroup C (Y-DNA)
Haplogroup C3 in Europe is most likely of Mongol origin. It is
found everywhere at various concentrations in Genghis Khan's former empire,
although only sporadically on the European continent. Other subclades of C
come from ethnic groups too remote from Europe (Aboriginal Australians,
Polynesians, South-East Asians) to be found among Europeans (apart from
recent immigration).
Haplogroup P (Y-DNA)
P is the parent group of Q and R (including R1a and R1b). It has
almost disappeared nowadays, except around its place of origins in Central
Asia. It is very rarely found in Europe. It may have been brought to Europe
by Central Asian invaders, like the Huns or the Mongols.
Haplogroup L (Y-DNA)
L is found mostly in the Indian subcontinent, but also at lower
frequencies in Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and Southern Europe along the
coast of the Mediterranean Sea (notably in Italy). L1 is typical of the
Dravidian people of South India. Various subclades are found in Europe (L1,
L2, L3) without any real geographic pattern. Europeans belonging to
haplogroup L are likely to be descended from Indian (L1, L3) or Persian
(L2, L3) merchants in ancient times, maybe at the time of the Roman Empire.
Haplogroup H (Y-DNA)
Gypsies
belong predominantly (about 50%) to haplogroup H1a. Haplogroup H is not
otherwise found in Europe, but on the Indian
subcontinent.
Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)
A is the oldest of all Y-DNA haplogroups and the closest to the
Y-chromosomal Adam. It originated in Africa over 70,000 years ago, most
likely in the south-west, around modern Angola and Namibia. Modern populations
with the highest percentages of haplogroup A are the Khoisan
(such as the Bushmen) and the southern Sudanese. Isolated cases of
individuals belonging to haplogroup A have been found in Western Europe
(notably Ireland, Britain and Germany). It is believed that these people
descend in direct paternal line from Nubians who
probably came to Europe during the Roman period, probably as slaves (Nubian
gladiators were popular in Rome). It is unlikely that they descend from
slaves from the Atlantic slave trade (17th and 18th century) since
these came from a part of Africa where A is very rare.
MtDNA
Haplogroups
All
mtDNA haplogroups found in Europe descend from the N
group, which is thought to represent one of the two initial migrations
by modern humans out of Africa, some 60,000 to 80,000 years ago. Nowadays
haplogroup N is only found at extremely low frequencies in various parts of
Eurasia.
Chronological development of mtDNA haplogroups
Note
that the age of mitochondrial haplogroups is much more difficult to
estimate than Y-DNA haplogroups, due to the tiny sequence of mtDNA and the
few number of mutations available. The error margin for the dates below is
typically of +-5,000 years, but could even exceed that for older haplogroups.
N => 75,000 years
ago (arose in North-East Africa)
R => 70,000 years
ago (in Southwest Asia)
U => 60,000 years
ago (in Western Asia)
pre-JT => 55,000
years ago (in the Middle East)
JT => 50,000 years
ago (in the Middle East)
U5 => 50,000 years
ago (in Western Asia)
U6 => 50,000 years
ago (in North Africa)
U8 => 50,000 years
ago (in Western Asia)
pre-HV => 50,000
years ago (in the Near East)
J => 45,000 years
ago (in the Near East or Caucasus)
HV => 40,000 years
ago (in the Near East)
X => over 30,000
years ago (in north-east Europe)
U5a1 => 30,000 years
ago (in Europe)
I => 30,000 years
ago (origin unknown - probably in Europe)
J1a => 27,000 years
ago (in the Near East)
W => 25,000 years
ago (in north-east Europe or north-west Asia)
U4 => 25,000 years
ago (in Central Asia)
J1b => 23,000 years
ago (in the Near East)
H => over 20,000
years ago (in the Near East or Southern Europe)
T => 17,000 years
ago (in Mesopotamia)
K => 16,000 years
ago (in the Near East)
V => 15,000 years
ago (arose in Iberia and moved to Scandinavia)
H1b => 13,000 years
ago (in Europe)
K1 => 12,000 years
ago (in the Near East)
H3 => 10,000 years
ago (in Western Europe)
Haplogroup H is by far the most common all over Europe,
amounting to about 40% of the European population. It is also found (though
in lower frequencies) in North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia,
Northern Asia, as well as along the East coast of Africa as far as
Madagascar.
The testing of ancient DNA helped understand how long each haplogroup
has been in Europe. Only a few such tests have
been successfully conducted so far. Mitochondrial DNA was extracted from
the skeleton of a 28,000 year-old Cro-Magnon from southern Italy, and the
haplogroup was determined as HV or pre-HV. Still preceding the Neolithic
expansion from the Middle East, the 9,000 year-old Cheddar Man
was found to belong to haplogroup U5a. (=> More examples
of ancient mtDNA haplogroups).
Autochtonous (Cro-Magnoid) Europeans must have therefore belonged at
least to haplogroups HV (and its offspring H and V) as well as U5a, which
also happen to be the most common mitochndrial haplogroup everywhere in
Europe. It has been speculated that over half of the matrilineal lineages
in Europe descend directly from Paleolithic Europeans. Their male
counterpart are Y-DNA haplogroup I.
H1 and H3 are the most common subclades in Western Europe. H1 peaks in
Norway and Spain, and H3 in south-west France and Ireland.
Haplogroup H13 is most common in Sardinia and around the Caucasus. Its
distribution is reminiscent of Y-DNA haplogroup G2a. The same is true of H2
to a lower extent. H5 and H7 are allso common in the Caucasus, but their
lower incidence around the Mediterranean, and higher frequency from
Anatolia to the Alps via the Danube suggest a possible link with the spread
of R1b.
U3 is centered around the Black Sea, with a
particularly strong concentration in the north-eastern part. It could be
related to the ancient Indo-Europeans, and probably more to R1b than R1a.
Haplogroup W and U4 are more common in Eastern Europe, Central Asia,
northern South Asia (around Tajikistan for U4, and Pakistan for W), which
also suggests an affiliation with the Indo-Europeans (correlated to Y-DNA
haplogroup R1a). The same is true of haplogroups I, T2 and U2e to a lower
extent.
Haplogroup K has the largest number of subclades in spite of its fairly
recent age. Most K1a4, K1a10, K1b, K1c and K2 subclades are typically
European. K1a1b1a and K1a9 are found primarily among Ashkenazi Jews.
Haplogroups J appears to correlate the most with the spread of
agriculture from the Middle East. However, being one of the oldest
haplogroups, some branches could very well have been in Europe long before
that. J1 and J2a are generally more common in Europe and are in all
likelihood of Paleolithic origin, while J2b is more frequent in the Middle
East and in South-East Europe (Neolithic farmers, probably correlated to
Y-DNA haplogroup E-M78).
The stronger presence of haplogroups X2 around the Caucasus,
progressively fading towards the Near East and Mediterranean
, hints that it could be related to the spread of Y-DNA haplogroup
G2a.
Finno-Uralic people have an overall mtDNA admixture similar to other
Europeans, with a higher percentage of W and U5b, and a small percentage of
Siberian haplogroups such as N or A. The Sami are characterised by a high
percentage of haplogroups U5b1 and V.
Haplogroup U6 is typical of the Berbers of north-west Africa (its Y-DNA
equivalent is E-M81). Its presence in Europe is mostly limited to Iberia.
The Gypsies have one specific haplogroup not found in the rest of the
European population. About half of them belong to haplogroup M (found
throughout East Asia and South Asia, especially in India).
European
mtDNA haplogroups and their subclades
Subclade
Time of
origin
Place of
highest frequency
Most prevalent
ancient ethnic group
H1
Spain,
Scandinavia, Germany and Russia
H1b
13,000
years ago
Eastern
Europe and North Central Europe
Slavic-Germanic
H2
Eastern
Europe, Russia, Central Asia, Middle East
H2a
Eastern
Europe, Caucasus, and Central Asia
Scythian
H2b
?
(Cambridge Reference Sequence)
H3
10,000
years ago
Iberia,
Sardinia and Germanic countries
H4
Iberia,
Central and South-East Europe
H5
France,
Northern Italy, Iberia, Central European plain, Finland
H5a
7,500
years ago
Central
Europe
H6
40,000
years ago
Ireland,
Central Europe, Russia, Caucasus, Middle East Central Asia
H7
Russia,
Central Asia, Caucasus
H8
Central
Europe, Syria, Armenia, Central Asia
H13
Southern
Europe, Middle East, Caucasus, Russia,
H14
Middle
East and Caucasus
H18
Arabian
peninsula
Arab
H19
Caucasus
H21
Caucasus
V
15,000
years ago
Basque
country and northern Scandinavia
Basque,
Saami
U1
India,
Middle East, eastern and southern Europe
Near-Eastern
U2
South
and Central Asia
Indo-Aryan
U3
Balkans,
Anatolia, Caucasus, Middle-East
U4
25,000
years ago
Baltic,
Russia, Central Asia
Kurgan
(Aryan)
U5
55,000
years ago
Northern
& Eastern Europe
U5a
Most
of Europe
U5a1
30,000
years ago
Finland
and Russia
U5b
Germany,
Finland and Russia
U5b1
Nordic
countries and Russia
Saami
U6
60,000
years ago
North-West
Africa, Iberia, Canary Islands
North-West
African
U7
Gujarat
(India), Iran, Pakistan, Iran, Near-East and Italy
Persian,
North-West Indian
U8
Most
of Europe and the Middle East
U8a
Basque
country
Basque
U8b
Italy
(+ Jordan)
K*
16,000
years ago
Europe
& Middle East
K1
Northern
Europe, Alps, Italy
K1a
4,000
years sgo
Northern
Italy, Alps and Rhine region
K1a1b1a
Eastern
Europe & Russia
Ashkenazi
Jewish
K1a4
Around
the Alps, Germany, Britain and Ireland
Celtic
K1a9
Eastern
Europe & Russia
Ashkenazi
Jewish
K1a10
North-Western
Europe
K1b
Most
of Europe
K1c
Most
of Western and Northern Europe, especially Iberia
K1c2
Germanic
countries
Germanic
K2
Around
the Alps
K2a
Eastern,
Central and North-Western Europe
Slavic,
Germanic or Celtic
K2b
Britain,
Ireland, Iberia and the Alps
Celtic
J*
45,000
years ago
Ireland,
Britain and Germany
J1
South-East
Europe and the Alps
J1a
27,000
years ago
Around
the Alps, and Germanic countries
J1b
23,000
years ago
Russia,
South-East Europe, France, Italy and Iberia
J1b1
Britain,
Ireland and Scandinavia
Germanic
J2
France,
Italy and South-East Europe
J2a
19,000
years ago
Most
of Europe
T*
10,000
years ago
Eastern
Baltic, France, Italy
T1
Southern
and Eastern Europe
T2
Northern,
Central and Eastern Europe
Slavic-Germanic
T3
Iceland
Germanic
T4
Northern,
Central and Eastern Europe
Germanic
T5
Central
Europe and Britain
Celtic
Sources
The
list below is non-exhaustive and include many of the numerous references linked
on these websites. Some studies and databases not published on the Web were
also used.
