Theories
of Mythology.
Holan
approves that in epoch of a Neolithic Age there was a religion, in the basic
positions uniform for an extensive area cultures of Forward Asia and
The Idea
that a role of the Great goddess (so she is named still by antique authors), it
is impossible to limit to sphere of the ground, is represented true (shall
recollect even cloudy wives and maidens of late folklore). She was considered
as Mistress a rain and moisture, the mistress of animals, Mistress lives and
death. A symbol of her was a circle (turned into a ring). The goddess was
personified by such animals, as a bird (for example, a cuckoo - see. Holan,
1992, 173), also insects - the butterfly, a bee (all - air elements!) etc. Her
spouse the master of a bottom (the god of the ground or the Underworld) in two
images were usual (the snake or an animal); and heavenly (an eagle, the hawk, a
kite) - when he rose to the spouse. Holan considers, that attitudes between
this spouses were completely not idyllic, and during one of quarrels the
goddess of the sky has dumped on the ground of the spouse from what that has
gone lame (Holan, 1992, 191).
Holan do
not precise differentiation between selected with him "the god of the
earth" and the master Underworld. Sometimes he speaks about them as about
a uniform deity, symbolised both the bull, and predators like a leopard, a
lion, and a wolf. But a stumbling-block for similar mixture there is popular in
art of the Ancient East a plot torment the bull a lion. " Very much can
be, that in the Bottom Mesopotamia (taking place, by the way, in the
neighbourhood with
The god -
benefactor was thought then in an image of the deer connected to elements of
the ground. " There Are ancient figures on which deer horns are treated as
vegetative forms (fig. 63 : 6). Such association could arise and because of
similarity deer horns with branches and consequently, that the deer dumps horns
an autumn, and new at it grow is similar to annual revival of vegetation "
(Holan, 1992, 40) in the spring. " So, we come to a conclusion about the
maintenance of the most ancient cosmogonies myth explaining rising and a
sunset: the deer (an essence belonging to the ground) has stolen the sun -
maiden in the underground world and ran with her on the sky. Angry the lord of
the Underworld has pursued a deer, has struck him and has returned the captive
back " (Holan, 1992, 42). " The wonderful deer, which has stolen the
sun - maiden for, has turned to the hero this to people the sun, light, fire.
And then he became in general the benefactor of people who have attached them
and to other values: agriculture, craft, knowledge." (Holan, 1992, 44).
From a deer bearing from under the ground the sun, nearby and up to a boat
transporting souls died and up to a horse, carrying out the same function.
Holan writes, that later the horse has replaced a deer in his role mediator
(with. 49 - 50).
Holan
believes, that "Neolithic religion" as the system existed up to 3 -
the beginnings 2 thousand before Indo-Europeans intrusion and some other
peoples, "... Therefore in Europe and Forward Asia the culture of the most
ancient farmers was destroyed, the Stone Age was replaced bronze, new peoples
were formed and distributed Indo-European languages, beliefs were changed, and
the former cult symbols was adapted to other religious views." (Holan, 1992,
10).
Sights
Holan are original, but attempt of decoding will unexpectedly be coordinated to
them Celt images on the well-known boiler from Gundestrup which was undertaken
by the French scientist Jean Jacque Hatt. It will be in detail considered in
the chapter devoted Celt to mythology. In brief, Hatt speaks about the
following basic characters Celt mythology: the god of thunder Taranis ; the god
connected to Earthly elements Cernunnos ; to the goddess - their
spouse; divine hero Smertrius; the god of sky Teutat . Òàðàíèñ, being jealous the
goddess, íàñûëàåò on it(her) of monstrous volko-dogs. That, wishing to
disappear, turns to a bird. Smertrius (Cernunnos's supporter) kills a dog.
Then, the coalition of gods (where enters and Teutat) sends army on protection
of the goddess. Taranis, in turn, sends dogs to grasp certain sacred bull, but
Smertrius again leaves the winner and the goddess returns the natural shape.
Semantic
crossings of conclusions Hatt and Holan are interesting. The thunder god Taranis
can correspond air image of lords of the Underworld. Pair: Cernunnos and
Smertrius vividly remind the god of growth or the god of the ground (in the
event that to understand the last separately from the lord of the Underworld)
and the god - benefactor. Both Cernunnos, and Smertrius suffered from anger
Taranis. Are important here and animal symbols: a deer and bull (Cernunnos),
predatory animal Taranis (variant "torment"), birds of the goddess.
Analysis by Hatt reveals not only Earthly, but also heavenly began goddesses -
mothers (that corresponds to Holan's concept).
It is
necessary to tell that Hatt and Holan concepts as though supplement each other.
The first has offered the concrete analysis of monuments of the fine arts Celt
to mythology. The second - On the most extensive material of cultures of the
world he has tried to reveal the second structure of global mythology, which
sources saw in "Neolithic religions". At all interest and importance
of conclusions Holan, they frequently seem too courageous - the disorder of
cultures to which monuments considered by the scientist belong is too great.
Besides at acquaintance to work Holan does not leave a thought that
exarticulation by the scientist of initial deities is carried out faster by a
sensual - shaped principle.
Fantalov
Alex
CULTURE of
BARBAROUS EUROPE: TYPOLOGY of MYTHOLOGICAL IMAGES
The
scholars of Indo-European cultures and mythologies:
Studying
mythology within the limits of the European tradition of knowledge began in
epoch of classical
The
solaristic-meteorological school represents significant interest from the point
of view of the present research as its representatives used a
comparative-historical method. This method was borrowed from comparative
Indo-European linguistics which actively developed from the end of 18
centuries. It meant a generality of an origin Indo-European peoples and
relationship of their languages occurring from certain "parent
language", existing in the remote past. Representatives of sun-mythological
school (A. Kun, V. Shvarz, A.N. Afanas'ev, etc.) have applied F.I. Buslaev this
method to studying Indo-European mythologies, and such approach has not lost
the value and today.
The
brightest spokesman of cultural - anthropological school were
The
Twentieth century is characterised by attention to psychological aspects of a
myth. On this basis such influential concepts, as the theory primitive thinking
Levi Broulle, the theory mythical creation were created with the purpose of
rescue from fear before M. Eliade's history, structuralistic theory of a myth
of K. Levi-Straus etc.
It is
necessary to recognise significant achievements of the mentioned scientists in
the field of the analysis of features of mythological thinking, reflection in
myths of space and time. Nevertheless, from the point of view of the present
research the greatest interest is represented with works, whose authors
concentrate the attention to concrete mythological characters as these
characters and the plots connected to them are the basic maintenance of any
mythology. Here again there is a problem of interpretation of concept "
the mythological character ".
Answers to
this question in different epoch could be various. Originally "god",
"hero", "demon" were thought as the real-life subjects
distinguished from the person only by that were, on L.N. Gumilev words, on the
order is more perfect than him as people are more perfect than ants. In process
of development of a civilisation (both in the West, and in the East) there were
sceptical moods. We see the ironical attitude to images of ancient Greek gods
at Aristophan and Lucian or representation about gods as the idolised
historical figures at Eugemer.
Alongside
with it there was also other tendency connected to the general channel of
formation of world religions (we shall recollect Platon's "ideas").
The god in an Islam or Christianity (partly and in Zoroastrianism) is supreme
essence. At an uncooperative altitude to Paganism on the part of adherents of
monotheism, it is necessary to tell that traces of ancient mythological images
are widely submitted in world religions. First, Ahuramazda , Allah or a
Christian Trinity comprise the numerous aspects Indo-European or Semitic gods.
Second, world religions mean presence of the whole classes of supernatural
essences, and in some it is possible to distinguish former pagan gods.
In New
time, in connection with secularisation interest to mythological primary
sources, on the one hand, has quickened, with another - they were interpreted,
as a rule, in the reduced, allegorical kind. Simultaneously with it there was
an interesting tendency to treat images of ancient gods as poetic metaphors
which originates in 13 century (Sturluson's Edda). Especially this tendency was
developed in epoch of romanticism and neo-romanticism.
In the twentieth
century significant influence on understanding of a problem of interpretation
of concept " the mythological character " rendered K.G. Jung. Such
Jung's archetypes as "anime", "animus", "mother",
"wise old man" partly it is possible to interpret as prototypes of
characters of all world mythology. At all importance of such installation which
in eyes of the modern person as though will rehabilitate mythology, giving it
intellectual support, it is necessary to note, that the Swiss scientist was,
first of all, the psychoanalyst that has imposed very strong print on all this
concept. To present time still know about mental processes that on this basis
to build global concepts more few.
Therefore,
while it is represented to more lawful to treat mythological characters from
the point of view closer to sociological - gods as an embodiment of social
forces and structures (this approach was planned in E. Durkgejm 's 19 century).
For
achievement of the purpose put in the present research, are very important was
to familiarise with the works studying concrete European and is wider -
Indo-European than mythology. In spite of the fact that we in the country and
abroad have the extensive scientific literature investigating mythologies of
various peoples of Europe, in a domestic science attempt of their complex
studying on a basis of simultaneously textual and graphic material was not
undertaken yet. Besides in most cases, scientists work within the framework of
one ethnic culture, though it is known that really to understand a subject or
the phenomenon it is possible only in comparison with similar for it.
Researches
frequently geographically are located in the countries in which territory there
is no time lived these peoples. In the attitude the Celts we see, that on
continent scientists of France were engaged in studying of their culture first
of all (J. Hatt) and Czech (J. Filip). Island Celt culture was studied,
accordingly, by
The
numerous works have devoted to the German-Scandinavian culture Scandinavian (B.
Almgren,
The
scolars of
Above
studying of culture of Scythians and the Sarmatians lived in South-Russian
steppes Rissian researchers (as V. Abaev, M. Artamonov, D. Raevsky,
Balt
culture were engaged in
As to cultures with which at modern peoples alive communication(connection)
here not all so is unequivocal has interrupted. For example, strong schools
Etruscology have developed, for example, in
Among the
scientists engaged in research the Indo-European mythologies as a whole, J.
Dumezil, the author of the so-called three-functional theory uses the greatest popularity.
His idea basis on fact that primary gods of the Indo-Europeans should be
grouped on functions: magic authority, military force, fertility (the pantheon
represented a society projection as Dumezil saw it). At all beauty and
logicality and wide popular (ideas Dumezil use in the constructions many
intellectuals of
In a
domestic science Indo-Europeans mythologies are engaged in reconstruction of
the most ancient In. Ivanov and In. Toporov. They, as well as Dumezil,
investigate basically mythological texts. Using principles of structural
linguistics, Ivanov and Axes allocate some circles of the mythological
characters described by a generality of fields of activity and, especially, the
names which are going back to uniform Indo-European roots (for example:
deiuo-" the day time shining sky "; perk-"thunder"; uel-connected
to the world dead; iemo-"twin"; s (a) uel-"sun"; trit-,
dhon-and (mo)-mer-the deities connected to water and the bottom world). These
researches are of great importance. However, at all breadth of the scientific
review, Ivanov and Axes almost did not concern the Celts and German (also as
Dumezil did not mention mythology
Balt and Slavs). Behind frameworks of their work there was, for example,
such chain of gods, as Hermes - Odin - Lugh , genetically
close, but having the names not connected among themselves (as frequently the
mythological character started named not on a primary name, and one of epithets
- that complicates work of the linguist).
Thus, at
all variety of works existing in the world scientific literature on this
subjects, they or have local character, or concentrate the attention to any one
side of art culture (as a rule, texts). And you see in definition of a
structural nucleus of mythology studying of monuments of the fine arts which
allows to fill in many lacunas of a textual material is capable to play very
important role also and to give other time cuts that helps to see mythological
images in development. In comparison of these both sides of art culture feature
of this work also consists. Thus it bases on maximum broad audience of
researches and considers all existing cultures of Barbarous Europe both many
related
The Baltic and Slavic history and mythology:
Baltic
peoples in the pantheon have kept all basic mythological types. The god of
Clear Sky is Dievas, to the God of the Thunder - is Perkunas, the God of Earth
Powers - Veln/Vels (Prussian Patollo), to the Cultural Hero - Sovius; to the
Great Goddess - Zemes mate, and also some other. Is evident, that at full
structure of Balt pantheon, the type of the Cultural Hero is be relative
undeveloped. The western representatives of the given cultural world - the
Prussians above all put the embodiment of the God of Earth Powers - Patollo. It
is known, that there priests played dominant role, comparable on power and
religious refinement with Celtic druids.
It is
necessary to note that among Slavic peoples in the most full structure the
pantheon of east Slavs is known. To the god of the Clear Sky corresponds Svarog, to the God of
Thunder - Perun , to the God of Earth Powers
- Veles , to the Cultural Hero - Dazhbog / Yarila, the
Great Goddess - Mokos , Lada and others. Thus,
especial development worship the Cultural Hero has achieved in western Slav mythology: actually,
the majority of their known gods (Svantevit, Herovit, Porevit etc.) can be considered as an
embodiment of this type.
German-Scandinavians.
German
people appear much later the Celts in a history. Actually, this
name the Romans have started to use since 1 century b. D. One of the first
displays of " the German spirit " steel of act of the Kymbres and the Teuthonics (the truth, they, probably,
belonged to peoples, intermediate between the Celts and Germanics). The
Teuthonics aspired to establish the control above Celticum, but eventually were
exterminated by the Romans. The same fate has comprehended above mentioned
Ariovist. Power of
However,
the German tribes did not wish to obey and to own kings. Marobod was expelled. On two
one century between empire and Free Germany the balance interrupted, certainly,
by conflicts was established.
New epoch has come in middle 3-th c. A. D. - so-called Great
resettlement of peoples.
Participation
of ancient German in numerous wars and often change of places has had an effect
on social structure. At these tribes it was not kept ancient Indo-Europeans
estates of priests and leaders, or most important people carried out religious
practices. By virtue of it, and also early Christianisation (which on continent
passed not so softly), the German mythology has not reached us in the
protogenic kind. But its Scandinavian variant was kept.
The
Scandinavian tribes behind exception it is ready have not taken part in Great
resettlement of peoples. These years they showed relative peaceful disposition.
Ancestors of Swedes have
formed strong
However,
the period of prosperity and relative rest the event which reminded epoch of
Resettlement of peoples and has received the name has replaced " movement
of Vikings " (the word "Vikings" occurs whether from
"vik" - " a bay, having filled ", whether from
"vikingr" - " the pirate, the robber "). Victims of their
attacks became
The
Vikings have opened and have occupied
From the
point of view of safety of mythology of the Scandinavians are similar the mythology of the Celts . On the one hand,
it is a grandiose layer of the pagan arts and crafts categorised as several
historical periods. Most significant of these periods were: the Period of great
resettlement of peoples (3 - 5-th c. A. D.), left well-known bracteats - gold
metal plates, the Vendel period (5 - 8-th c. A. D.) from it it is magnificent
ornamented with the weapon; Century of vikings (the end 8 - 11-th c. A. D.)
when well-known images on stones and monuments wood grooves were created.
On the
other hand, it is texts. Scandinavians had
Odin is
creating the world. (A. Fantalov, painting in oil).
Bronze Age: history, culture, mythology.
The Celts.
There are
various hypotheses of formation Celts as historical people. According to
earlier, ancestors of people came in the
However now the majority of researchers are
declined to a hypothesis authochtonic origins the Celts in area between Average
Rhein and Average Danube to 7-th c. BD In 6 century BD hordes of the Celts have
terrorized
The Earth
present
The
history included their sensational, but unsuccessful storm of
During 3
centuries BD the Celts have started to suffer defeats. Ease of gains harboured
danger. Huge distances weakened lines of the communications. The Celts could
not develop own statehood. The governors who have recovered from defeats of the
organised powers (
But the
supreme authority belonged to estate of the priests having the uniform
organisation. They shared on three categories. Druids formed the highest caste
- creators myths and directors of rituals. Filides carried out functions of
lawyers, they kept an ancient history of the country closely bound with mythology
in memory. At last, bards in the verses glorified military leaders and heroes.
According to Caesar, Gaulish druids did not trust a written word and kept huge
volume of the information in memory. It is no surprising, that the period of
training of the druid reached 20 years. In
But time
of domination the Celts on continent left. From the east they were restricted
with wild German tribes. In the south gathered force
In 121 BD the Romans occupied
It was ruined. And then have come fatal for the Celts
60-50 BD Burebista, tsar Deacons has destroyed or has expelled them from the
Central Europe; Ariovist, the German leader has superseded them from Germany.
And, at last, Caesar has made the dizzy campaign and for some years has subdued
Similar
facts has comprehended also all other continental the Celts. Their culture has
escaped only on
Sources of
our knowledge about Celt (and practically any other) mythologies are the
literature and the fine arts. Thus as it was already spoken above, they are
distributed in time is rather non-uniform. This heterogeneity follows from
features Celt histories. For a "barbarous"
stage of development on which, as a rule, creation of the well-known eposes
richly sated in the mythological images and plots also was carried out, absence
of written fixing of these is typical. Sometimes it is connected to absence of
writing as such, but is far from being always for it is known, that barbarians
adapted the letter of more "advanced" neighbours for the needs.
Besides they sometimes, created own, though also primitive writing.
Nevertheless, neither in Celtic oghamic the letter, nor on the German fleeces
mythological texts were not kept, and there are only data of magic-medical or
biographic character. Probably, the reason of "silence" of barbarians
is covered in a rigid interdiction of written fixing sacral texts. In exchange,
priests cultivated difficult mnemonic approaches. Therefore, after the Roman
occupation and destruction of estate of druids, from great Celt religious tradition still would have
only obscure descriptions of antique authors, if not two circumstances.
In first
there are Gaulish and Gallo-Roman art. It was above said, that the Celts had high
craft culture, especially in the field of metallurgy. And the sacral beginning
penetrated this culture. In the period Laten - Celtic the Iron Age (6 - 1-th c.
BD) Were created numerous products - boilers, grivnas, bracelets, the weapon,
richly decorated by mythological images and plots (especially wellknown boiler
from Gundestrup). In the subsequent for Laten the Roman Iron Age in
Second
extremely important circumstance in a question of preservation Celt to
mythological tradition became the factor of island Celts. The special role here
belongs to
The modern
science allocates the following cycles: mythological , historical, heroic and a cycle of the Finn. The
first covers the most ancient period of a history (or pseudo-histories) and is
extremely strongly sated with characters in whom ancient gods (and even
frequently are guessed and refer to). The historical cycle is longest and
continues mythological. Sagas of heroic and historical cycles are grouped
around of the certain events and characters (in first case Cuchulain and
Conhobar; in the second - around of feats of the hero of the Finn and his
army). The narration of both these cycles, in which also there are ancient
gods, is limited to rather short time pieces.
Monasteries
where manuscripts were kept, have strongly suffered from invasions of Vikings,
however tradition lived about 17 centuries when
The literary
heritage of the Brittons is not so great. Their culture developed not in such
favorable conditions. At first the Britons have fallen under authority of
Alex Fantalov
Taranis and Cernunnos. (A. Fantalov,
watercolour).
Thracian, Dacian, Illyrian, Scythian and
Alanian mythologies:
Limitation
of Thraco-Dacian and Illyrian mythological sources, in comparison with Celtic
and Germanic-Scandinavian ones has got the certain problems. So, for example,
is not clear, whether they were esteemed within the framework of the given
cultures gods of the Thunder and the Clear Sky though separate hints on their
cult are present. It is impossible to identify with full confidence and the God
of Earth Powers (it is possible, it Zalmoxis). About Bendis - the Great Goddess
we also have very small volume of the information. Actually, all of them were
eclipsed by the Cultural Hero in characteristic embodiment of the horseman. It
is possible to count the reason of this phenomenon very early development of
rather centralised imperial authority in Thraco-Dacian and Illirian traditions.
Influence of an image of the Cultural Hero on mass consciousness was so great,
that he in later epoch determined character of relation with the advanced
religions (that was shown in features of recognition of Mithraism by the Illyrians
and Christianities by Thraco-Dacians).
The
representatives of Scythian
(and Sarmatian) cultural world to the basic types of a structural
nucleus corresponded: to the God of Clear Sky - it is possible, Papay or
"Ares" (the Scythians), to the God of Thunder - Wacilla (the
Alanians); to the God of Earth Powers - Don-Bettyr, Falvara, Afsati; to the
Cultural Hero - Kolaksay (the Scythians), Wasgergi (the Alanians); to the Great
Goddess - Api and Tabiti (the Scythians), Bzenon, Dzerassa (the Alanians). The
attention is given in the absence in the Scythian pantheon of the God of
Thunder and the God of Earth Powers and accent for an image of the Cultural
Hero (whether it be images of Kolaksay in anthropomorphic art or a deer pays to
itself within the framework of animal style). Last fact with the big share of
confidence can be attributed on the account of early addition of imperial
authority at Scythians (as it was mentioned above, their history shares for the
appropriate periods - 'the first empire', 'the second empire', 'the third
empire'). Representatives of the Sarmatic-Alanian branch esteemed also the various deities which
are going back to the God of Earth Powers. In it, probably, their ideological
difference from the Scythians consists.
Fantalov
Alex
CULTURE
of BARBAROUS
TYPOLOGY
of MYTHOLOGICAL IMAGES
Chapter
1. Barbarous
1.1.
Barbarous
Concept
of "Barbarous
The Term
"barbarians" - "bearded", having the Greek origin, has
undergone the certain evolution in scientific and ordinary consciousness.
Greeks of classical epoch named so all other peoples. Such opposition of
"we" - "outsiders" is present in any cultures. Hence, Greeks
included in concept "barbarians" and representatives advanced ancient
oriental civilisations: Egyptians, Babylonians, Lydians, and Phoenicians. From
the point of view of ancient Greek thinkers, for example, Aristotle, such
division existed and will exist always.
The Romans,
former pupils and successors of Greeks apprehended this terminology. But they
bring about an extensive coloniser politics, first of all in
The Roman
understanding in any measure has inherited and arisen in bowels of empire
Christianity. But when it became prevailing, confession of the Christian
doctrine was included in number of necessary attributes of a belonging to a
civilisation also. The follower of new belief began to refer to as a proud name
"Roman", opposing itself "Paganus" - to the pagan as whom
it could be understood both the native of empire and the foreigner. Later the
countryman was named Paganus (and not casually - in a countryside pagan rites
longly kept).
Then, half
christianisiried and romanisiried German have destroyed decayed
Despite of
the introduced innovations, representation about universal empire as about the
certain ideal it was kept. From here and Charles Great's crowning, and "
Sacred Roman empire of the German nation ", and even an imperial title of
Napoleon. The western Europeans began to name "Barbarians" peoples
which were not recognising religious authority Roman pontifics and political
(let even fictitious) domination of new emperors. Mainly peoples of the
After 16
century, in connection with secularisation of the
In
scientific area the Roman understanding of "barbarians", as peoples
of the ancient
The stage
conception of "barbarity" has important value for the present
research. It is the most probable that mythopoethic the tradition is a product
of oral creativity of peoples which are taking place at a heroic,
"barbarous" step of development. Indian rishas, Celtic bards
Scandinavian skalds and even Greek aedas sang of gods and brave leaders with
such force of images because their hearts were young. On words Levi-Strauss, in
"... Those last times creators were such format what now seems outside
achievable ".
And
ingenious Italian J. Viko, developed in 18 century (on a material of
Ethnic-cultural
and chronological limits of a material:
It Is
necessary to note, that Barbarous Europe as cultural - historical unity, it was
formed almost exclusively " Indo-European by Europeans ". Peoples
which are taking place outside Indo-European language family (Iberians, Picts
etc.) turned in relicts to time of the beginning of the period interesting us,
have left rather limited pagan heritage.
The
language criterion is put in terms of the allocation of this or that
mythological tradition standard in a science. It is connected to names of
German scientists A. Kun, W. Manhard, English M. Muller, Russian F. Buslajev,
I. Afanasjev and others, basing on achievements of comparative-historical
linguistics and aimed at reconstruction Indo-European mythologies as initial
system of mythological representations of ancestors of modern peoples of this language
family. "We consider Indo-European mythology as set Hittite (and others
Anatolean mythologies - Luwian, Pali and later - Lydian, Lycian), Aryan
(including the Indian mythology, the Iranian mythology, Dard and Nuristan
(Cafir), middle East, aryan mythologies), the Armenian mythology, the Greek
mythology, Italic mythologies, Celt mythologies, the German-Scandinavian
mythology, the Baltic mythology, Slavic mythology, Tocharic mythologies, and
also fragments of mythologies concerning to Albanian, Thracian, Illyrian,
Phrygian, Venetian and to some other traditions known in incomplete transfer
" (Myths of nations of the world, 1998, ò. 1, 527).
The Second
criterion for allocation of this or that tradition are this to archaeology. An
origin Indo-European frequently connect to archaeological culture of fighting
axes. This culture reached in the beginning 3 thousand BD From Jutland up to
With reference
to this time, using in aggregate linguistic and archaeological criteria,
experts allocate large cultural a generality. For example, in
Chronologically
the material is marked as follows. In mass volume, the works of art, able to
comprise mythological images and the plots correlated with references, start to
appear in Barbarous Europe from the beginning of the Iron Age (so-called
Halstadt With - 7 in. AD, and it is especial from the following behind it Laten
the period - with 5-th. c. BD). To this time have arisen the Celts and the Slavs , Thracian-Dacian
and Illyrian the cultural worlds (be relative so early origin of
Germanic-Scandinavians, Balts and Slavs are not present such confidence). And,
that it is important, in the same period cultural has stood apart, having
opposed itself to "barbarians" antique
The top
limit of existence of Barbarous Europe is more dim. In
Pagan
mythology Slavs and Scandinavians Longer kept. At the last it even has gone
through original blossoming in 5 - 11-th. c. AD That were "overdue flowers
northern paganism" Nevertheless, by 12 century christening of Slavs and
Scandinavians basically was completed. Last bastion - Lithuanian paganism has
fallen in the beginning of 15 centuries.
All told
concerns to pagan cults as to prevailing system of outlook. But at a level of
folklore and a folk art vestiges of mythology were strongly kept up to 19 - the
beginnings of 20 centuries. They also are the important materials for the
researcher.
The Basic
cultural worlds of Barbarous Europe had in many respects the common destiny.
They have taken place from uniform Indo-European a root, during centuries
keeping similarity in pagan cults and mythologies. Thus an enormous role in
their evolutions the Greek-Roman influence (mentioned, in particular,
iconography and writing) has played. Characteristic absence at peoples, taking
place on heroic - a "barbarous" stage of development of graphic tradition,
apparently, is. We can observe a similar collision on various examples. D.S.
Raevsky writes: " In pre-Scythian epoch in Northern Black Sea coast in an
equal measure are not known neither images of the person, nor the image of
animals <...> We Compare these data to that fact, that in a history
Indo-Aryans, promoted on territory Hindustan Peninsula, also existed the long
period when they, probably, did not know the fine arts <...> Have not
brought with itself the fine arts and the Iranians, settled on a boundary 2 - 1
millenniums AD On the Iranian plateau: in a basis of the graphic tradition
existing here later, has lain, on V.G. Lukonina's expression, " style of
citations ", ò. å. She(it) was generated on the basis of borrowing images
and iconographic circuits from an arsenal of art of
So,
summarising told, it is possible to tell, that the concept of
"barbarity" of this research has incorporated:
1. cultural
historical ("Roman") understanding;
2.
religious ("medieval") understanding;
3. stage
understanding.
Cultural -
historical concept " Barbarous Europe " is because it was occupied by
peoples having general Indo-European the origin and on which, besides, a strong
print influence of a powerful Greek-Roman civilization has lain. Religious
concept it is owing to domination in its territory of the pagan religions also
having a uniform origin. At last, it is possible to consider Barbarous Europe
and with stage points of view as its existence passed within the limits of the
delayed heroic century which overcoming for this or that people meant,
simultaneously, and an output from uniform "barbarous" cultural
space. The territory of this space, certainly, varied for so long period of a
history. In different time it occupied space of modern
Our days,
it is possible to divide Barbarous Europe, as well as
However,
at significant similarity of situations in the field of preservation Celt and
the Scandinavian mythologies, a parity iconography and a textual material in
both traditions unequally. The Irish sagas have undergone to powerful
processing from positions of the Christian doctrine. Therefore, in business of
reconstruction Celt pantheon monuments of pagan, continental art have paramount
value. On the contrary, the Scandinavian written sources were kept in rather
complete kind and allow to be guided by them at the analysis of artefacts (and
chronological break between them is not so great).
The Celts
and German long time were the basic contenders of a classical antiquity, and have
made skeleton of feudal
Central
and the
For consultations or tutoring: history, political science,
cultural science, art criticism, painting and theories of composition; purchase
of pictures and also installing of advertising - E-mail: fantalov@hotmail.com
CULTURE
of BARBAROUS
TYPOLOGY
of MYTHOLOGICAL IMAGES
Chapter
1. Barbarous
1.1.
Barbarous
Concept
of "Barbarous
The Term
"barbarians" - "bearded", having the Greek origin, has
undergone the certain evolution in scientific and ordinary consciousness.
Greeks of classical epoch named so all other peoples. Such opposition of
"we" - "outsiders" is present in any cultures. Hence,
Greeks included in concept "barbarians" and representatives advanced
ancient oriental civilisations: Egyptians, Babylonians, Lydians, and
Phoenicians. From the point of view of ancient Greek thinkers, for example,
Aristotle, such division existed and will exist always.
The
Romans, former pupils and successors of Greeks apprehended this terminology.
But they bring about an extensive coloniser politics, first of all in
The Roman
understanding in any measure has inherited and arisen in bowels of empire
Christianity. But when it became prevailing, confession of the Christian
doctrine was included in number of necessary attributes of a belonging to a
civilisation also. The follower of new belief began to refer to as a proud name
"Roman", opposing itself "Paganus" - to the pagan as whom
it could be understood both the native of empire and the foreigner. Later the
countryman was named Paganus (and not casually - in a countryside pagan rites
longly kept).
Then, half
christianisiried and romanisiried German have destroyed decayed
Despite of
the introduced innovations, representation about universal empire as about the
certain ideal it was kept. From here and Charles Great's crowning, and "
Sacred Roman empire of the German nation ", and even an imperial title of
Napoleon. The western Europeans began to name "Barbarians" peoples
which were not recognising religious authority Roman pontifics and political
(let even fictitious) domination of new emperors. Mainly peoples of the
After 16
century, in connection with secularisation of the
In
scientific area the Roman understanding of "barbarians", as peoples
of the ancient
The stage
conception of "barbarity" has important value for the present
research. It is the most probable that mythopoethic the tradition is a product
of oral creativity of peoples which are taking place at a heroic,
"barbarous" step of development. Indian rishas, Celtic bards
Scandinavian skalds and even Greek aedas sang of gods and brave leaders with
such force of images because their hearts were young. On words Levi-Strauss, in
"... Those last times creators were such format what now seems outside
achievable ".
And
ingenious Italian J. Viko, developed in 18 century (on a material of
Ethnic-cultural
and chronological limits of a material:
It Is
necessary to note, that Barbarous Europe as cultural - historical unity, it was
formed almost exclusively " Indo-European by Europeans ". Peoples
which are taking place outside Indo-European language family (Iberians, Picts
etc.) turned in relicts to time of the beginning of the period interesting us,
have left rather limited pagan heritage.
The
language criterion is put in terms of the allocation of this or that
mythological tradition standard in a science. It is connected to names of
German scientists A. Kun, W. Manhard, English M. Muller, Russian F. Buslajev,
I. Afanasjev and others, basing on achievements of comparative-historical
linguistics and aimed at reconstruction Indo-European mythologies as initial
system of mythological representations of ancestors of modern peoples of this
language family. "We consider Indo-European mythology as set Hittite (and
others Anatolean mythologies - Luwian, Pali and later - Lydian, Lycian),
Aryan (including the Indian mythology, the Iranian mythology, Dard and Nuristan
(Cafir), middle East, aryan mythologies), the Armenian mythology, the Greek
mythology, Italic mythologies, Celt mythologies, the German-Scandinavian
mythology, the Baltic mythology, Slavic mythology, Tocharic mythologies, and
also fragments of mythologies concerning to Albanian, Thracian, Illyrian,
Phrygian, Venetian and to some other traditions known in incomplete transfer "
(Myths of nations of the world, 1998, ò. 1, 527).
The Second
criterion for allocation of this or that tradition are this to archaeology. An
origin Indo-European frequently connect to archaeological culture of fighting
axes. This culture reached in the beginning 3 thousand BD From Jutland up to
With
reference to this time, using in aggregate linguistic and archaeological
criteria, experts allocate large cultural a generality. For example, in
Chronologically
the material is marked as follows. In mass volume, the works of art, able to
comprise mythological images and the plots correlated with references, start to
appear in Barbarous Europe from the beginning of the Iron Age (so-called
Halstadt With - 7 in. AD, and it is especial from the following behind it Laten
the period - with 5-th. c. BD). To this time have arisen the Celts and the Slavs , Thracian-Dacian
and Illyrian the cultural worlds (be relative so early origin of Germanic-Scandinavians,
Balts and Slavs are not present such confidence). And, that it is important, in
the same period cultural has stood apart, having opposed itself to
"barbarians" antique
The top
limit of existence of Barbarous Europe is more dim. In
Pagan
mythology Slavs and Scandinavians Longer kept. At the last it even has gone
through original blossoming in 5 - 11-th. c. AD That were "overdue flowers
northern paganism" Nevertheless, by 12 century christening of Slavs and
Scandinavians basically was completed. Last bastion - Lithuanian paganism has
fallen in the beginning of 15 centuries.
All told
concerns to pagan cults as to prevailing system of outlook. But at a level of
folklore and a folk art vestiges of mythology were strongly kept up to 19 - the
beginnings of 20 centuries. They also are the important materials for the
researcher.
The Basic
cultural worlds of Barbarous Europe had in many respects the common destiny.
They have taken place from uniform Indo-European a root, during centuries
keeping similarity in pagan cults and mythologies. Thus an enormous role in
their evolutions the Greek-Roman influence (mentioned, in particular,
iconography and writing) has played. Characteristic absence at peoples, taking
place on heroic - a "barbarous" stage of development of graphic
tradition, apparently, is. We can observe a similar collision on various
examples. D.S. Raevsky writes: " In pre-Scythian epoch in Northern Black
Sea coast in an equal measure are not known neither images of the person, nor
the image of animals <...> We Compare these data to that fact, that in a
history Indo-Aryans, promoted on territory Hindustan Peninsula, also existed
the long period when they, probably, did not know the fine arts <...>
Have not brought with itself the fine arts and the Iranians, settled on a
boundary 2 - 1 millenniums AD On the Iranian plateau: in a basis of the graphic
tradition existing here later, has lain, on V.G. Lukonina's expression, "
style of citations ", ò. å. She(it) was generated on the basis of
borrowing images and iconographic circuits from an arsenal of art of
So,
summarising told, it is possible to tell, that the concept of
"barbarity" of this research has incorporated:
1.
cultural historical ("Roman") understanding;
2.
religious ("medieval") understanding;
3. stage
understanding.
Cultural -
historical concept " Barbarous Europe " is because it was occupied by
peoples having general Indo-European the origin and on which, besides, a strong
print influence of a powerful Greek-Roman civilization has lain. Religious
concept it is owing to domination in its territory of the pagan religions also
having a uniform origin. At last, it is possible to consider Barbarous Europe
and with stage points of view as its existence passed within the limits of the
delayed heroic century which overcoming for this or that people meant,
simultaneously, and an output from uniform "barbarous" cultural
space. The territory of this space, certainly, varied for so long period of a
history. In different time it occupied space of modern
Our days,
it is possible to divide Barbarous Europe, as well as
However,
at significant similarity of situations in the field of preservation Celt and
the Scandinavian mythologies, a parity iconography and a textual material in
both traditions unequally. The Irish sagas have undergone to powerful
processing from positions of the Christian doctrine. Therefore, in business of
reconstruction Celt pantheon monuments of pagan, continental art have paramount
value. On the contrary, the Scandinavian written sources were kept in rather
complete kind and allow to be guided by them at the analysis of artefacts (and
chronological break between them is not so great).
The Celts
and German long time were the basic contenders of a classical antiquity, and
have made skeleton of feudal
Central
and the
For consultations or tutoring: history, political science,
cultural science, art criticism, painting and theories of composition; purchase
of pictures and also installing of advertising - E-mail: fantalov@hotmail.com
Scytho-Sarmatians.
Scythians
and Sarmatians belong to Iranian branch of Indo-European peoples. The Iranian
tribes long time kept cultural unity. But in the beginning 1 thousand B.D.
Their world was shaken with fiery sermon Zaratustra. Those who have accepted
it, having rejected pagan gods, became historical Iranian. Those who have kept
old belief, (it were basically nomads), have received a nickname Turanians.
Though later many gods were rehabilitated, the unity appeared lost forever.
Time of
occurrence actually Scythians - not later than 8-th c. B.D. They have
superseded from
At the end
of 6-th c. B.D. Persian king has made the big invasion in Scythian country that
was finished by a full failure. After a victory, in the north coast of
In 3-th c.
B.D. less extensive state of Scythians with the centre in
On a way
of life Scythians were divided on settled and nomad tribes. The last used the
greatest prestige and referred to "imperial". Their rulers were
buried in the big barrows, in support of killed animal and magnificent subjects
decoratively an applied art.
In times
of Herodot to the east from Don Sarmatians lived. According to a legend
transferred by Herodot, they have descended from the Amazon who have married
Scythian young men. This legend reflects high position of women at Sarmatian
society. Despite of obvious relationship of given peoples, Sarmatians always
found out hostility in relation to Scythians, and they posses a main role in
route of the last.
Sarmatian
tribes have created an armour cavalry; capable is successful to resist to a
Macedonian phalanx and the Roman legions. With them help, Parthians revived
Here it is
necessary to tell and about last wave Iranian nomads - the Avars who have come
from Syr-Darya. Avars have formed the extensive state with the centre in
territory of modern
Safety of
Scytho-Sarmatian mythology in the interesting image reminds Celt and
German-Scandinavian. With reference to Scythians we can speak about the richest
fine arts. It has found reflection as in magnificent metal wares: elements
horse harnesses, for example, phalars (round metal plates), the weapon, vessels
for drink; and in stone anthropomorphic sculptures - " Scythian idols
". The Sarmato-Alanians, to be exact, their descendants Ossets, have
created the remarkable epos - so-called " Legends about Narts " in
which mythological characters actively appear. The Nart epos the Osset was
borrowed by the majority and neighbours and written down in different variants
by scientists of 19 centuries.
Alex
Fantalov
The
Slavs.
Hypotheses
of Slavs birth can be divided into two basic streams, which is allowable to
name "
In 6
century of our era the
The
Destiny of them was various.
Other
situation has developed in the
In
creation East Slavic states Ruses have played the important role. According to
one point of view "Rus" is the army, a team" (Kirpitchnicov,
Dubov, Lebedev) means simply". Other opinion identifies Ruses with
annalistic Rugians, people of the German origin living on a southern coast of
At this
time
The Kiev
Russia played a role of a link between
The
outlook of the Kiev Russia was influenced with ideology of Scandinavians and
peoples of a southern coast of
Despite of
a huge area habitation, Slavs practically have not kept the description of
mythological plots. Their territory was arena of numerous wars and invasions.
Neither isolated islands, nor unapproachable mountains here were. To tell the
truth, "
The Pagan
fine arts of ancient Slavs also are poorer Celtic or Scandinavian ones.
Jeweller ornaments on which prospective mythological characters are represented,
wooden carved subjects (distaffs etc.) were kept, elements of a stone groove of
orthodox cathedrals. The idol is interesting well-known stone Zbrutch idol. The
western branch of the given group of peoples was in a little bit other position
(we shall recollect pagan cities). But crusaders have not spared wooden temples
and sculptures of gods. To present time archaeologists find only rough elements
of external furniture of the sanctuaries, kept in subsoil waters and stone
relief images of gods in walls of the Catholic churches constructed on a place
of destroyed temples. All of them only I am vaguely similar to magnificent
descriptions western chronics. The collection small covered runic inscriptions
of idols from lock Prilvits, if not doubts in them authentic would be rather
important.
Alex
Fantalov.
The
Myths:
Illyrians.
Proto-Illyrians
appear on the Balkan with 13 - 12-th c. B. D. They participated in moving
barbarous tribes of
But the
Position
with safety Illyrian mythology is even worse than with Thracian one. Texts are
not present, and the fine arts are poor enough (probably, it developed in a
tree). However interest is represented with displays mithraism, blossomed in
Alex
Fantalov
The Scytho-Sarmatians history.
For consultations or tutoring
A. Fantalov.
German-Scandinavians.
German people
appear much later the Celts in a history. Actually, this
name the Romans have started to use since 1 century b. D. One of the first
displays of " the German spirit " steel of act of the Kymbres and the
Teuthonics (the truth, they, probably, belonged to peoples, intermediate
between the Celts and Germanics). The Teuthonics aspired to establish the
control above Celticum, but eventually were exterminated by the Romans. The
same fate has comprehended above mentioned Ariovist. Power of
However,
the German tribes did not wish to obey and to own kings. Marobod was expelled.
On two one century between empire and Free Germany the balance interrupted,
certainly, by conflicts was established.
New epoch
has come in middle 3-th c. A. D. - so-called Great resettlement of peoples.
Participation
of ancient German in numerous wars and often change of places has had an effect
on social structure. At these tribes it was not kept ancient Indo-Europeans
estates of priests and leaders, or most important people carried out religious
practices. By virtue of it, and also early Christianisation (which on continent
passed not so softly), the German mythology has not reached us in the
protogenic kind. But its Scandinavian variant was kept.
The
Scandinavian tribes behind exception it is ready have not taken part in Great
resettlement of peoples. These years they showed relative peaceful disposition.
Ancestors of Swedes have formed strong
However,
the period of prosperity and relative rest the event which reminded epoch of
Resettlement of peoples and has received the name has replaced " movement
of Vikings " (the word "Vikings" occurs whether from
"vik" - " a bay, having filled ", whether from
"vikingr" - " the pirate, the robber "). Victims of their
attacks became
The
Vikings have opened and have occupied
From the
point of view of safety of mythology of the Scandinavians are similar the mythology of the Celts . On the one hand,
it is a grandiose layer of the pagan arts and crafts categorised as several
historical periods. Most significant of these periods were: the Period of great
resettlement of peoples (3 - 5-th c. A. D.), left well-known bracteats - gold
metal plates, the Vendel period (5 - 8-th c. A. D.) from it it is magnificent
ornamented with the weapon; Century of vikings (the end 8 - 11-th c. A. D.)
when well-known images on stones and monuments wood grooves were created.
On the
other hand, it is texts. Scandinavians had
Thraco-Dacians.
Occurrence
Thraco-Dacians frequently date to 12 - 11-th c. A. D. Then peoples of
the north have destroyed Troja and have crushed Hittite empire. Then ancient
To 6-th c.
A. D. extensive and rich
After
disintegration of empire of Alexander southern
The Tribes
of Thracian group lived to the north from
In 60 B.
D. Burebista, one of Dacian leaders has organized great power. Having revived
people, suffered before from drunkenness, having united various Daco-Getians
tribes and having constructed in
About 60
A. D. Burebista it was set to the west, having crushed Celt tribes in
New
association of the country has taken place at the end of 1-th c. A. D. Under
rulership by Decebal
On it the
history of the given group of peoples comes to an end. It is necessary to
mention also, that in Hellenistic epoch in
The
Thraco-Dacians have not left mythological texts. Therefore our knowledge on
their mythology (besides avaricious mentions of the Greek authors) there is a
rich art of
Alex
Fantalov
Alex Fantalov.
Summary table of Indo-European gods
by natural and social
functions.
|
№ |
function |
Greek mythology |
Indian mythology |
Scandin. mythology |
Slav mythology |
Balt mythology |
Irish mythology |
|
1 |
sky |
Ouranes |
Varuna Dyaus |
Tyr |
Svarog |
Dievas |
Nuadha |
|
2 |
thunder |
Parjanya |
Perkunas |
||||
|
3 |
war |
Ares |
Skanda |
Tyr |
Perkunas |
Nuadha Morrighan |
|
|
4 |
kingship |
Herovit |
Dievas Perkunas |
Nuadha |
|||
|
5 |
earth |
Prthivi |
Erd |
Zemes- mate |
Brigit |
||
|
6 |
fate |
Moirae |
|
Valkyrie |
Laima, Dekla, Karta |
triad of Mother-Goddesses |
|
|
7 |
goddess of love |
Aphrodite |
Laksmi |
Freyja |
Laima |
Aine |
|
|
8 |
matrimon |
Hera |
Savitri |
Frigg |
Laima |
|
|
|
9 |
natural power |
Dionysus |
Rudra |
Freyr |
Herovit |
Vels (Potrimpo) |
(Cernunnos-Hes) |
|
10 |
forest, animals |
Pan |
Pusan Rudra |
|
(Puskaits) |
||
|
11 |
underworld |
Hades |
Yama Varuna |
Odin Hel |
Vels (Patollo) |
Manannan |
|
|
12 |
psychopomp |
Yama |
|
Sovius |
|
||
|
13 |
mystery knowledge |
Visvakarman |
Veles |
Vels |
Oghma |
||
|
14 |
sea |
Poseidon |
Varuna |
Eagor Njord |
|
(Autrimps) |
Manannan |
|
15 |
light and harmony |
Mitra Bhaga |
Balder |
|
Mac Ok (Mapon) |
||
|
16 |
fire |
Hesta |
Agni |
Loki? |
Svarogich |
Gabie |
|
|
17 |
wind |
Boreas |
Vayu |
Njord |
Stribog |
Vejapats |
|
|
18 |
moon |
|
Soma |
Mani |
|
Meness |
|
|
19 |
sun |
Helios |
Sol |
Saule |
(Belenus) |
||
|
20 |
dawn |
Eos |
Ussas |
|
Usen |
Ausrine |
(Epona)? |
|
21 |
twins |
Dioscuri |
Asvinau |
|
|
Sons of Dievas |
|
|
22 |
god of love |
Eros |
Kama |
|
Lel |
|
Mac Ok |
|
23 |
crafts-manship |
Hephaistos |
Tvastar |
dwarfs |
Kozma Demyan |
Kalvaitis |
Goibhniu |
|
24 |
medicine |
Asclepius |
|
|
(Aushauts) |
Dian-Cecht |
The Basic types of the
Indo-European gods.
For consultations or tutoring: history, political science, cultural science,
art criticism, painting and theories of composition; purchase of pictures and
also installing of advertising - E-mail: fantalov@hotmail.com
A. Fantalov
"The original Indo-European types of gods
(Materials of Conference dedicated Punin by St. Petersburg State University 2000).
For more detailed argumentation see: “Indo-European mythologies: genesis
and evolution of characters.”
In terms of numerous
artifacts findings author suggests to distinguish such original Indo-European
mythological types as: 'The God of Thunder ' (Scandinavian Thor, Celt
Taranis, Slav Perun, Balt Perkunas, Indian Indra); 'The God of Sky'
(Indian Dyaus, Balt Dievas, Scandinavian Tyr); 'The Great Goddess' (Greek
Hera, Indian Prithivi, Scandinavian Erd, Slav Mokos, Balt Zemes-mate, Ireland
Danu); 'The Divine Twins' (Greek Dioskuri, Indian Asvinau, Balt Sons of
Dievas), 'The God of Earth' (Greek Dionysus, Indian Rudra, Scandinavian
Freyr, Slav Veles, Balt Vels, Celt Cernunnos) and 'The Cultural Hero'
(Greek Hermes and Hercules, Scandinavian Odin, Slav Herovit, Celt Lugh). We can
imagine that the male divinities form an original torn ring. These gods are
connected with one another like the links of a chain. The characters of the
Thunder God and the Sky God can merge (as in Greek mythology - Zeus); the
Divine Twins are usually the Sky God’s sons (in Balt mythology - the Sons of
Dievas); the Cultural Hero has got functions, similar to ones of the Twins (for
instance: he is a physician, an ancestor and protector of people); the Earth
God is closely connected with the Cultural Hero as they are season dying and
reviving characters. And only the Thunder God and the Earth God fight with each
other forming a break in the chain. It is known from Celtic, Baltic, Slav,
Indian and many other mythologies.
The female divinity is in
the inside of this ring, and she is a mediator between the male gods. The Great
Goddess can be a wife of the Thunder God and at the same time a wife of the
Earth God (as in Celtic, Slav and Baltic mythologies), or a wife of the Sky God
(as in Italian, Greek, Indian traditions. Usually the Great Goddess is the
mother of the Twins and the Cultural Hero. And all the later goddesses
descended from her character.
We can see the characteristic
features of these principal types. The Thunder god was represented as a man
standing on a chariot, his weapons are lightning and an axe or a hammer, and
his assistant is a wolf. The Sky God is often a war divinity; his weapon is a
sword. The Cultural Hero is a rider; his weapon is spear as a rule. Those who
believe, that the Thunder God is a rider are mistaken. The God of Earth is a
protector of animal and the lord of Otherworld. Lastly, the Great Goddess has
got a double nature, the earth one and the sky one.
Alex Fantalov.
A.
Fantalov
"Indo-European
mythologies: genesis and evolution of characters."
(The
materials of international symposium in Pyotr Veliky Anthropology and
Many
scientists study the problems of the Indo-European pantheon reconstruction.
This choice is determined by importance of the Indo-European culture sources
(especially Scandinavian, Celt, Slav, Balt, Thracian, Indian ones) for the
contemporary political and cultural processes. However, as a rule these
investigations consider the separate culture worlds in general area of these
peoples. Besides that, specialists in texts do not usually consider the objects
of the archaic art. But artifacts could be throw light on the many controversial
questions. Therefore author of this article believes that he can make the new
contribution to the investigations of an archaic kernel of the Indo-European
myths and its development tendencies. I have studied the numerous
archaeological catalogues and gathered all of the figurative ancient art
representations. I have investigated also the modern scientific points of view
on the problems of Indo-European pantheon reconstruction. On whole the books by
such world scholars as G. Dumezil, V. Ivanov, V. Toporov and others, who study
a wide range of the peoples, are known for me. But my leading idea for analysis
of the representations is influenced by A. Golan and J. Hatt' studies. Besides
the main approach of my work is the comparative one, that has produced the good
results in linguistics. And certainly I must study the investigations by
specialists in each specific cultural world: Etruscan, Celt, Scandinavian,
Thracian, Illirian, Slav, Balt etc.
Golan says
about two initial mythological characters: The Goddess of Sky and her husband -
The Lord of Underworld. The latter one had two images: undeground - in the form
of a snake or a beast, and heavenly - in the form of an eagle (when he flew up
to his wife). Golan also thinks that The God of Earth (personified by bull)
existed separately from The Lord of Underworld. Besides God of Earth there was
the Cultural Hero (in form of ram or stag). He was venerated as an ancestor and
protector of people. This
hypothesis was confirmed by Golan in terms of numerous examples. But he proves
the existence of some general religion in the Neolithic Age. On the contrary,
the theme of my research is the Indo-European mythologies. Therefore I am not
interested in signs and symbols, but in object of figurative art, such as the
claudron from Gundestrup.
Hatt bases
his interpretation of this object representations on the idea of the Celtic god
of thunder - Taranis (figure 1) and the Celtic god of earth - Cernunnos (figure
2). The Great Goddess was their wife (figure 3). The third male divinity of the
Celtic pantheon was Teutates (figure 4), who was called Mars by the Romans. He
personified the clear sky and protected a tribal community. (Teutatis is
derived from Celtic word "tribe").
Besides
Cernunnos (his stag horn symbolized his connections with the vegetable and
animal kingdoms), there existed the related character. This was Smertrios or
Ogmios, but the Romans named him Hercules. And Smertrius was an object of
Taranis's hatred. The God of Thunder sent his terrible wolf to kill The Hero (figure
5). Besides, Taranis sent the dogs to capture a sacrificial calf of Smertrius
(figure 6). But The Hero would always win.
There is
an agreement between the ideas of Hatt and Golan. Celtic Taranis can correlate
with the air image of The Underworld Lord. Cernunnos and Smertrius resemble
with The Earth God and The Cultural Hero, suffering from anger of Taranis
(persecuted by The Lord of Underworld). Wellknown plot of the Ancient Orient
art presents Bull, being tormented by Lion.
One should
mention that Hatt and Golan have got different scientific interests. The first
scholar suggested an original reconstruction of Celtic mythology. Golan have
tried to restore some world mythology structure, the sources of which he found
in "the religion of Neolithic Age". But I am interested in the
problem of correlation of the certain divinities and myths in the Indo-European
civilisation. Therefore as the "sceleton" of pagan tradition has been
outlined, one has to investigate its local variants.
First, let
us consider the transformations of Celtic divinities in Christianised Irish
sagas. Taranis disappiared. Onwards the sky thunder is connected with Christian
god. But Cernunnos is presented as the personification of Otherworld (not
Underworld!). In the sagas he is named "Daghdhda", "Good
god". This epithet corresponds to another name of Cernunnos -
"Esus". The identity of Dahghda and Cernunnos is supported by a
Gallo-Roman relief, showing three herons standing on a bull back (figure 7). It
is known, that three herons symbolized Brighid, Dahghda's daughter. The Great
Goddess was named Goddess Danu. Celtic Teutates is transformed into Irish
Nuadha deprived of the sky function (like Taranis), but keeping his kingship.
The
character of Smertrius-Ogmios divided into two divinities. The first, who kept
the name Oghma, was considered a great hero and the creator of paganish
letters. The second (Lugh) has became the keeper of mystery knowledge. Ancient
Romans (who comprehended the Barbarian mythologies better than some people
usually think), identified Lugh withHermes/Mercury. It is an important item of
information, because ancient sources identified Hermes/Mercury also with Wodan
(Odin). Consequently, we can identify Lugh and the Germanic-Scandinavian lord
of the dead warriors' world.
According
to "Elder Edda" Odin created runic letters. And therefore we can
compare him with Oghma and ancient Smertrius. Comparing Celtic and
Germanic-Scandinavian mythologies one should remember the hostility of terrible
wolves to Odin and Smertrius. According to Hatt, on the surface Gundestrup
claudron Taranis was represented as the master of the wolf. He is like Thor of
the Scandinavian pantheon. However, in the Northlands Odin became king of gods.
Perhaps it was connected with the idea of Odin as the ancestor of Germanic
tribes and kings. (According to Edda, Odin created mankind. "Historia
Britonum" reports that Woden was many Saxon leaders' progenitor. At last,
Odin was reputed to be the ancestor of the ancient Danish dynasty of the Volsungs).
When this character become the Scandinavian pantheon chief, Thor turned into
his son. But the traces of the hostility between these divinities remained.
Possibily Fenrir wolf killing Odin, in an older variant of Scandinavian myth
also belonged to The God of Thunder (like Celtic tradition). Why did the latter
hate The Cultural Hero? His hatred was probably caused by the relationship
between The Hero and The God of Earth, or by the fact that The Hero had stolen
some treasure or knowledge.
The bronze
matrice from Torslunda (
The
representation on the matrice from Torslunda belongs to the so-called
"dancing warrior" type. This type was widely spreaded widely in the
Vendel and Viking periods of art. (See the helmets from Walsgarde - figure 8, 9,
10). We can see an interesting detail - the dancing warriors wearing horns. If
they symbolize Odin, what does this detail meen? In terms of our hypothesis,
the horns are the attribute of The God of Earth. Perhaps a risen Odin's
character included this attributes. It is confirmed by the comparison with
Celtic tradition. Cernunnos was accompanied by animals (a stag, a serpent, a
bull). Odin is connected with the World Tree and the some animals: a horse,
deer, ravens. On the gold horn from Hallechus (figure 11) the deer attacked by
dogs is near the dancing warriors. These representations are like the
representations on the wellknown claudron from Gundestrup. Esus (who was one of
the peronifications of Cernunnos) accepted sacrifice hanging on a tree (as well
as Odin). Once Odin sacrificed himself. He had been hanging on the World Tree
for 9 days and nights.
So on the
basis of these findings I suggest the following types of Indo-European gods:
The God of Thunder, The God of Earth Powers, The God of Sky, The Great Goddess
and The Cultural Hero (or simply The Hero). Some of these divinities merged
into the united character or inversely divided into several gods, but it is
natural, as the religion systems developed during centures and milleniums. Now
we shall verify this hypothesis on the mythological material of other
Indo-European cultures.
In ancient
Greece The Sky God was named "Zeus". This name is correlated with
Teutat and Tyr (Tiwaz) and also Balt Dievas, Indian Dyaus. All these names are
connected with Indo-European foundation "deino" - "daies
sky". The thunderous function was acquired by Zeus later. His wife Hera is
one of The Great Goddess's personifications. The Greek god of Otherworld was
Hades. However in ancient
There are
a similar characters in Indian mythology. Indra, The God of Thunder and Dyaus,
The Sky God existed separately. The whole image character of The Great Goddess
have not remained, although Kali Durga and Prthivi discented from her. The
possessor of natural power Rudra was The God of Earth Powers. One of Rudra's
ephithets is Pasupati, "the master of cattle". Possibly, this
character originated from representations on the sighns of
As for The
Cultural Hero, Manu and Yama - the sons of Vivasvat are quite suitable for this
role. Manu was reputed as the progenitor and the ruler of mankind. In terms of
the same tradition Yama was the first dead man and the ruler of ancestors. In
ancient
In Slav
and Balt folklores we can also see the similar examples. Above-mentioned Balt
Dievas is typical variation of The Sky God. Balt Vels and Slav Veles have got a
resemblance with Indian Vala not only in their names. These gods stole the
cattles of the thunder gods Percunas and Perun accordingly and suffered a
persecute. Due to Lithuanian dualistic legends and some other sources we know
about a complicated relationship between Vels and the wolf. Vels was a bridge
builder and a musician (like Pan, who played the pipe). We have got the plot of
tempting Percunas's wife (Zemyna), turned into a chtonic goddess after her
moral fall (She was tempted by Vels). At least, Boyan - a legendary Russian
story-teller was named "the Veles's grandson". Veles was considered
also as god of forest, abundance and the dead.
Lithuanian
guide of souls into Otherworld was Sovius. Like Indian Yama, he became the
first deñeased and the cremation custom founder. As for Slavs, their folklore
preserved such an interesting personage as Yarila (West Slaw Herovit). At
spring festivals in open streets, on puplic holidays organised in his honour a
youth, wearing a wreath of ears and riding on a white horse, played the part of
Yarila. Besides, in autumn Yarila's funeral was celibrated. (This personage was
shown then as a representation of an old man with an enormous phall). We can
see, that Yarila has got attributes of a dying and rising from the dead divinity.
As an ancestor, he is like Dazhbog.
Dazhbog
was the god of good and light. He was considered to be the ancestor of the
ancient Russians. Dazhbog/Yarila is interesting as a horseman (figure 14). It
is important, because the most well-known character of Thracian religion is
also a horsemen. Usually he is called "Thracian Hero", or simply
"Hero".
"Thracian
Hero" was compared with Greek Heracles. The plaques from Letnitsa (4-th B.
C., figure 15) show this character as a great hunter, the lord of animals, great
drinker and tribal progenitor. By the way, the design of some plaques is like
the design of the Vendel period helmet plaques (figure 8, 9, 10) and some
Etruscan reliefs (figure 17). At least many Scythian idols in phallic forms
represent male figures in the poses of rider. Some scholars think them to be
representations of dead rulers, others suggest some mythical characters (for
instance - Scithian ancestor Kolaksay or even Slav Dazhbog). But these points
of view do not contradict each other.
It may be
noted that this Indo-European scheme influenced Ob-Ugrian beliefs. Especially
such an interesting Vogul mythical character as Mir-Susne-Hum - "The Man,
Who Supervises The World" (figure 18). He is a national hero of the
Ob-Ugrians (the Voguls and Ostyaks), their totem. Mir-Susne-Hum rides on a
horse with eight wings. He is a wanderer, mediator and has got a resemblance
with Scandinavian Odin.
So, I have
investigated the principal mythological structure of the Indo-European peoples.
The advantages of this research are: firstly - the widest grasp of various
traditions; secondly - a comparison between artefacts relating to one and the
same tradition but in different epoches; thirdly - application of texts and
artefacts.
The
obtained results confirm the principal ideas of Golan and Hatt. An
extraordinary stability of the basical mythological types have been shown. The
Cultural Hero's pecularities, his character origins and transformations have
accounted for. In terms of this study some problems can be solved, for example:
the origin of Odin/ Daghdha and some other gods; the interpretations of
numerous ancient art objects. At last some lost mythological fragments can be
reconstructed. My research gives rise to the following interesting questions:
is it possible to deduce the divinity characters of Light, Sea, Craftmanship,
Love and so on from the above-mentioned basical types or not?; why did
different Indo-European peoples endow different types of gods with super power
(in spite of the fact that the general mythological structure remained the
same)? It is the widest field for ethnical mentality investigations.
Unfortunately, in consequence of this article brevity, I can not state the
complete chain of my conclusions. I can intend only, that the knowledge of one's
tradition and the neighbors' tradition allows for man to realize his role in
exchanging world. The past must be to
address to the future.
.
This is a map of
structure of basic Indo-European pantheons (in
Alex Fantalov.
CULTURE
of BARBAROUS
TYPOLOGY
of MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS
Chapter
2. Mythological characters of West European barbarians
2.3.
Mythological images in Germanic-Scandinavian culture
Images
of gods in the Scandinavian mythological texts.
The
Scandinavian mythological tradition fixed in 13 century gives us rather full
list of the gods well identified to similar images of parallel mythological
traditions. At the same time, specificity of the given mythology is shown in
extreme growth of an image of the Hero and a little "novelistic" by
the approach to a statement of many myths.
The god of
the Clear Sky (legislative function) is Tyr. On alt-Germanic his name sounded
"Tiw", that corresponds Greek Zeus , Indian Dyaus, Balt Dievas,
Hittite Tiwat, Etruscan Tin, Gallic Teutat . However Tyr
(similarly to Irish double Nuadu) it is not treated in references as the
heavenly god. He has kept (and that not completely) a role of the patron of
breeding collective. As in ancient German culture the full member of a tribe
the man - soldier was, Tyr has got additional function of the god of war. He
was also the patron of the military right connected with judicial process on
ting (assembly of members of a tribe).
The god of
Thunder who is carrying out power function, in the Scandinavian mythology,
certainly, is Scandinavian Thor . To him
corresponds Germanic Donner. In both "Edda" Thor the opponent World
the Serpent behaves as a mighty warrior, he fights against giants and monsters.
Pays on itself his familiarity to people that is not absolutely typical for
Thunder god.
The god of
Earth Powers at Scandinavian peoples was Freyr, embody vegetation, a crop,
riches, the world. His images include features of phallic cult. In antiquity
Freyr was very significant deity, however, in "Edda" he does not play
an independent role. Many characteristics of the God of Earth Powers were incorporated
by Odin that proves to be
true on an example of comparison with Celtic tradition. Famous epithet Odin - "All
father" corresponds to nickname Dahghda - " Father of
all ". Cernunnos it is surrounded
with animals. Odin also, according to"Edda" it is connected to
animals: a horse, dears, and ravens. The victims which have been hung up on a
tree were devoted to Gaulish Hes. Odin also accepted similar victims, but he
has gone further and himself has sacrificed to himself, having hung nine days
and night on World Tree. Freyr has got only rudimentary features: a mention of
how he has killed deer horn of giant Beli (compare. History with Merlin), and
also figurine Freyr from Rellinge - without horns, but with the crossed legs
(in pose Cernunnos) and with the big phallus (ill. 25.).
Odin - the Cultural
Hero (German Wotan, Anglo-Saxon Woden) - has occupied the Supreme position in
Scandinavian pantheon. His grandiose image was considered variously. The most
simple treatment - "the Supreme god", is more complex - "the god
of war", is even deeper - "Apparently, Wodan in genesis - a chthonic
demon, the patron of the military unions and military initiation and the god -
sorcerer (shaman)." (Myths of nations of the world, 1998. ò. 2, 241).
Very
important for us the certificate ancient Romans, identifying Wotan with Hermes /Mercury. What has served as
the reason of similar identification? Hermes
in Greek
mythology the patron of wanderers, a conductor of souls died was the bulletin
of gods. In last quality, he "... Carries out one of the most ancient
functions of a conductor of souls died in Hades, "psyhopomp" or the
assistant for a way to an empire dead (Hom. Od. 24 1 - 5). Hermes belongs to
both worlds - lives and death; he is mediator meanwhile and another, as well as
the mediator between gods and people. <...> His guidance on lives and
death it is reinterpreted in epoch of classical mythology as protection heroes.
<...> During late antiquity there was Hermes-trismegist image
("three times the greatest One") in connection with affinity Hermes
to the Otherworld; with this image occult sciences and Hermetic (secret,
closed, accessible only devoted) compositions" (Myths of nations of the
world, 1998. ò. 1, 292 - 293). Hermes has also function of the patron of herds.
The given image has come and in mythology of Etruscans where existed at once
relatives of the character - Herme and Turms. As if to Roman Mercury it is
considered, that he originally was the god of trade and has enriched the
symbolics after merge of the cult to cult Hermes.
One of
major Odinn's functions was collecting souls died (but it is extreme the heroes
falling in fight) in illusive palace
Comparison
Odin to the Greek god bears in it the big sense. You see to Hermes/Mercury the
Romans equated and Celt Lugh. Means, comparison Lugh and Scandinavian owner of
Odinn,
being the founder of pagan fleeces and the patron of poets is close as well
Oghma. And it shows that it is possible to compare to the big share of
confidence Scandinavian got with ancient Celtic Smertrius. Their similarity
presence at the Scandinavian god of the military function absent at Hermes
speaks. Actually, it is possible to speak about two versions of the Cultural
Hero: the intermediary between the worlds and the legendary hero. Probably, in
genesis both they are consequence of splitting of a uniform image of
progenitor. Hermes has not kept functions of an ancestor and soldier (there was
Heracles in
- as Lugh
was father
of Ireland Cuchulain).
As, Odin
became the chapter of the Scandinavian pantheon Thor has turned to his son.
But, despite of it, the echo of animosities between them was kept. Odin
cleverly and angrily scoffs above Thor, worth on the other coast of the river
(the concept of lord Valhall, is here too important as the carrier - boatman -
we shall recollect Greek Haron). Perhaps, wolf Fenrir - Odin's murderer, in
initial variant of the Germanic-Scandinavian myths, also belonged to Thunder
god?
Speaking
about eshatology of ancient Scandinavians, it is necessary to mention that it
finds out surprising similarity to similar plots of Zoroastrian
According
to Persian sacral texts ("Frashegird") there will be great disasters
at last centuries of the world. All wolves will be left together and will merge
in one huge wolf. People will beat
with it and will win. After centuries, all snakes will be slipped together and
will grow together in the huge snake. And again, people will battle to it and
will win. Will pass years and held down in a muzzle of a volcano
Scandinavian
and ancient Persian cultures have a line of the similar moments and besides
eschatology. The plot about gold of dwarf Andvari, paid by gods is widely known
as the repayment for death of his son, killed in an image of an otter. The
damnation (the given plot has served as a begining to a history about Sigurd
(Siegfried) and Nibelung) was imposed on this gold. And in Zoroastrian
But the
attention and one fundamental psychological difference of the Iranian and
Scandinavian mythology pays to itself. It is in the field of morals. Great sin
for ancient Persians was the lie. Therefore, their shahs tried to not break
already the made peace contracts (than, by the way, used the Romans, having
concerning fidelity to agreements more free representations). As the guarantor
of observance of the contract god Mitra - Indo-Iranian variant of the Cultural
Hero acted. Scandinavians were not so scrupulous in the given question, and as
we saw, an example in it their own Cultural Hero - Odin submitted.
The great
Goddess of ancient Germanics was Nertus. In "
Name
Nertus is not known from the Scandinavian sources. As reflections of the Great
Goddess can be considered Erd, Frigg, Freyja and even Valkyrie . Erd, whose name
is meant with the ground, it is considered mother Scandinavian Thor . It is more about
her it is not known. Frigg - "Beloved" was Odinn's wife and the
goddess of a marriage, love, the family center. She had gift of a prediction.
Frigg to some extent it is possible to correlate with Greek Hera (the same as
Erd with Greek Gaia ). Like Hera,
Frigg argued with the regal spouse and sometimes took above him top. According
to "The History of Langobards" by Paul Diakon, in war between the
Langobards and the Vandals, Frigg is helped the Langobards, and by Odinn to the
Vandals. Due to cunning of the goddess, the Langobards have won.
Freyja
("Mistress") was as a matter of fact double of Frigg. She was
considered as the wife the Odd (probably, variant of Odinn). Unlikely Frigg,
Freyja in "Edda" concerns to Vanir - small group of gods of
fertility, and is Freyr's sister. She embodied fertility, love, and beauty.
Forage of that, the goddess daily divides and chooses together with Odin killed
warriors. As representative of Vanir, Freyja had knowledge of magic (from Asir Odin owned to it only).
There are in
2.3. Mythological
characters in Germanic-Scandinavian culture
Images of gods in the
Scandinavian mythological art.
For consultations or tutoring: history, political science,
cultural science, art criticism, painting and theories of composition; purchase
of pictures and also installing of advertising - E-mail: fantalov@hotmail.com